1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上1: language and language teachingWhat is language?1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. The answer to this question is the basis for syllabus design, teaching methods, teaching and assessment procedures in the classroom. 3. Different views on

2、 language generate different teaching methodologies.Common Views on language1. Structural view （language competence） The founder: Saussure The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991): phonology, morphology, and

3、syntax. The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units (e.g., phonemes), grammatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations (e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming e

4、lements), and lexical items (e.g., function words and structure words). Learning the language is to learn the structural items, study the inner structure and rule of language, ignore the social functions of the language.2. Functional view Representative: Johnson, Marrow, swain canal (the core: gramm

5、ar) It views language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning, a means of doing things/ combining grammatical rules and vocabulary to express idea.3. Interactional view （communicative competence） Emphasis: appropriateness It views language as a vehicle for the realization of interperso

6、nal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is seen as a communicative tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. Learners need to know the rules for using the language in certain contextsWhat makes a good language teacher?1. A good lang

7、uage teacher does not solely depend on his/her command of the language. There are a variety of element that contributes to the qualities of a good language teacher. These elements can be categorized into three groups: ethic devotion, professional quality and personal styles.How can one become a good

8、 language teacher?Wallaces (1991) reflective model 1. Stage 1: language development2. Stage 2: learning, practice, reflection1) The learning stage is the purposeful preparation that a language normally receives before the practice. This preparation can include:Ø Learning from others experience&

9、#216; Learning the received knowledgeØ Learning from ones own experiences2) The practice stage (2 senses)Pseudo practice: short period of time assigned to do teaching practice as part of ones pre-service education, usually under the supervision of instructorsThe real classroom teaching: what a

10、teacher undertakes after he/she finishes formal education3) Teachers benefit from practice if they keep on reflecting on what they have been doing3. Goal: professional competence2: theory of language learning and language learners1. Fluency1) Different levels of fluency： 1 time-filling2 quality of s

11、peech3 appropriacy of speech4 aesthetic capability2) In terms of second or foreign language environment, fluency means a level of proficiency in communication (Richards, 1992). 3) Four kinds of abilities:1 the ability to produce spoken language with ease;2 the ability to speak with a good but not ne

12、cessarily perfect command of intonation, vocabulary, and grammar;3 the ability to communicate ideas effectively;4 the ability to produce continuous speech without causing comprehensible difficulties or a breakdown in communication.2. Accuracy 1) Accuracy refers to the ability to produce grammaticall

13、y correct sentences but may not include the ability to speak or write fluently.3. Interaction1) Interaction pushes learners to produce more accurate and appropriate language, which itself provides input for other students. (Hedge, 2002)2) Forms of Interaction1 TeacherStudents2 StudentsStudentsØ

14、 Pair workØ Group work3) Advantages of group work and pair work:1 Students are more involved.2 More language practices3 Generating interactive language.4 Offering an embracing affective climate. 5 Developing co-operative learning6 Promoting learner responsibility and autonomy.4) Problems of gro

15、up work and pair work1 The teacher is no longer in control of the class.2 The class is noisy.3 Students will use their native language.4 Students' errors will be reinforced in small groups.5 Teacher cannot monitor all groups at once.6 Some learners prefer to work alone.7 There are dominant or si

16、lent speakers (chauffeurs and hitchhikers).8 Students talk about other things.9 No time to practice fully or finish the task.5) Typical group work tasks專心-專注-專業(yè)1 Games2 Role-play and simulations3 Drama4 Projects5 Interview6 Brainstorming7 Information gap8 Jigsaw9 Problem-solving and decision-making1

17、0 Opinion exchange6) Before the start of group work/pair work tasks1 Introduce the technique2 Justify the use of pairs or small groups for the technique3 Model the technique4 Give explicit, detailed instructionsØ a restatement of the purposeØ rules to followØ stay with your groupØ

18、; share ideas and informationØ listen to other people's ideasØ help each otherØ English onlyØ establish a time frameØ assign roles (if any) to students5 Divide the class into groups6 Check for clarification7 Set the task in motionØ Do not sit at your desk and grade

19、papers.Ø Do not leave the room and take a break.Ø Do not spend undue amount of time with one group at the expense of others.Ø Do not correct students' errors unless asked to do so.Ø Do not assume a dominating or disruptive role while monitoring groups.Ø reportingØ d

20、emonstratingØ working on points which needs improving4. Learning and communication strategies1) Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence. -Oxford, 19902) Lea

21、rning strategies (OMalley et al, 1983)1 Metacognitive strategiesØ Metacognitive strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language learning, which include how learners regulate their learning by planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning activities. -Rubin, 1987Ø adva

22、nce organizerØ directed attentionØ selective attentionØ self-managementØ advance preparationØ self-monitoringØ delayed productionØ self-evaluationØ self-reinforcement2 Cognitive strategiesØ Cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in lea

23、rning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. -OMalley et al, 1983Ø repetitionØ groupingØ note-takingØ deductionØ auditoryØ key wordØ contextualizationØ elaborationØ transferØ inferencing3

24、Social mediation strategiesØ Social mediation strategies/Communication strategies are those activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge.Ø cooperationØ question for clarification3) Compensatory strategies 1 enable learners

25、 to use the new language for either comprehension or production despite limitations in knowledge. 2 Compensatory strategies are intended to make up for an inadequate repertoire of grammar and, especially, of vocabulary. 3 Knowledge sources for comprehension (1) Knowledge neededn Schematic knowledge:

26、 Schematic knowledge or schemas (schemata) refers to ones general knowledge about the world and about text types, which are cognitive constructs for the organization of information in our long-term memory. Ø background knowledge: actual, socioculturalØ procedural knowledge: how knowledge i

27、s used in discoursen Contextual knowledgeØ knowledge of situation: physical setting, participants, etc.Ø knowledge of co-text: what has been, will be saidn Systemic knowledge: syntactic, semantic, morphological (2) Roles of the knowledgen allowing for effective guess (system knowledge)n bu

28、ilding meanings by drawing on a wider range of sources (including semantic and contextual knowledge. Sound recognition is not enough.)n making effective inference (previous knowledge)n Cutting down the range of possible meanings (situational context)n meaning understanding is required bottom-up and

29、top-down processes5. comprehensible output1) Output can serve a consciousness-raising function by helping learners to notice gaps in their interlanguages. 2) Output helps learners to test hypotheses. 3) Learners sometimes talk about their own output, identifying problems with it and discussing ways

30、in which they can be put right.6. Enlightenment1) Teachers should encourage students to test hypotheses and to notice gaps in interactive processes.2) Students are supposed to learn English by using English and interacting with others.3. communicative principles and task-based language teaching1. CL

31、T（交際英語教學(xué)）: 1) Definition: Communicative Language Teaching is an approach that focuses on linguistic functions and on training communicative competence of the learners. It includes both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative sit

32、uations.2) The basis: the theory of sociology and sociolinguistic.3) Communicative Competence: Four aspects included (Hymes, 1979):1 knowing whether or not something is formally possible (grammatically acceptable), which is roughly equivalent to Chomsky's linguistic competence.2 knowing whether

33、something is understandable to human beings.3 knowing whether something is in line with social norms;4 knowing whether or not something is in fact done: Do people actually use language this way?4) Features of Communicative Language Teaching1 It stresses the need to allow students opportunities for a

34、uthentic and creative use of the language.2 It focuses on meaning rather than form. 3 It suggests that learning should be relevant to the needs of the students.4 It advocates task-based language teaching. Students should be given tasks to perform or problems to solve in the classroom.5) Principles1

35、Communication principle2 Task principle3 Meaningfulness principle6) Criteria for evaluating communicative activities1 Communicative purpose2 Communicative desire3 Content, not form4 Variety of language5 No teacher intervention6 No material controls7) Merits of CLT:1 likely to give the students all s

36、kills2 More relevant3 Less waste of time and effort8) Demerit of CLT:1 make great demands upon the professional training and skills of the teacher2 Difficult to cheek what student have learnt3 Don't offer the teacher the security of the textbook 9) Traditional class VS CLT1 Listening: to the tea

37、cher, to the tape sth. unpredictable, sth. authentic, sth. meaningful2 Reading: learning language get information, exact meaning, different skills3 Speaking: repeating, answering, retelling sth. creating, express oneself4 Writing: composition, translation write to express oneself, ones feeling, ones

38、 thought; write what people write in the way people write.10) Linguistic Competence: tacit knowledge of language structures and the ability to use the knowledge to understand and produce language. (Chomsky)11) Communicative Competence: Both knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to

39、 use the language in communicative situation appropriately.2. Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) 1) TBLT vs. CLT1 TBLT is, in fact, a further development of CLT. 2 It shares the same beliefs, as language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life. 3 However, it has stress

40、ed the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.2) model1 Pre-task2 Task cycleØ Task: do the taskØ Planning: prepare to report/rehearseØ ReportØ Hearing task recording or read text3 Language focusØ AnalysisØ Practice 3) What is a t

41、ask?1 A task is essentially goal-oriented; it requires the group, or pair, to achieve an objective that is usually expressed by an observable result, such as brief note or lists, rearrangement of jumbled items, a drawing, a spoken summary. 2 This result should be attainable only by interaction betwe

42、en participants: so, within the definition of the task you often find instructions such as reach a consensus, or find out everyones opinions.3 Four Components of a Task: purpose, context, process, product4 Differences among Exercises, Exercise-tasks and Tasks: Ø Tasks are the activities which l

43、et students focus on the complete act of communication. Ø Exercises are the activities which let students focus their attention on the individual aspects of language, such as vocabulary, grammar or individual skills. Ø Exercise-tasks are the activities which helps the students to master th

44、e individual aspects of language by using them in certain kinds of contexts.5 The Principles in Designing Tasks: Ø authenticity principleØ form-function principleØ task dependency principleØ leaning by doingØ scaffolding6 steps in designing tasks:Ø Think about students&

45、#39; needs, interests, and abilitiesØ Brainstorm possible tasksØ Evaluate the listØ Choose the language itemsØ Prepare materials7 Types of TasksØ listingØ ordering and sortingØ comparingØ problem solvingØ sharing personal experienceØ creative tasks&#

46、216; jigsaw tasksØ decision-making tasksØ opinion exchange tasks3. PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production)1) Differences between PPP and TBLT1 The way students use and experience language in TBLT is radically different from PPP.Ø Free of language controlØ A genuine need to use l

47、anguage to communicateØ A free exchange of ideasØ Appropriateness & accuracy of language form in general, not production of a single formØ A genuine need for accuracy and fluency2 TBLT can provide a context for grammar teaching and form-focused activities. PPP is different in this

48、 aspect.Ø A task-established contextØ Encouraged to think, analyze, not simply to repeat, manipulate and applyØ A more varied exposure to natural languageØ Language forms not pre-selected for focusØ Learner-free selection of languageØ TBLT cycle lead from Fluency to acc

49、uracy (+fluency)Ø In TBLT Integrated skills practiced 4. Total Physical Response1) Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James Asher who advocates the coordination of speech and action. 2) Language is taught through physical (motor) activity.3) Features: 

50、1 TPR reveals structuralist or grammar-based views of language. According to Asher, the verb, especially the verb in the imperative, as the central linguistic motif around which language use and learning are organized.2 The language learning theory in TPR is behaviorism. Learning is effective and me

51、aningful through stimulus-response action. 3 The objective of a TPR course is to develop learners communicative ability through the use of action-based drills in the imperative form.4 TPR syllabus is a sentence-based one with teaching items of grammar and vocabulary. However, the focus is not on the

52、 structure, but on meaning in a way that grammar points and vocabulary items are selected according to situations in which they are used.5 The learning and teaching activities in TPR are imperative drills such as orders, commands or instructions, which are used to elicit physical actions and activit

53、y on the learner.6 TPR learners are listeners and performers. They are required to respond and monitor and evaluate their own progress. 7 The teacher in TPR is active, directing the classroom interaction and turn taking to make sure everything goes well.4) Merits1 Physical activity helps retain the

54、language.2 Learning is made a matter of effortless process.3 It gives due attention to right-brained learning, which is supposed to precede left-brain language processing. 4 It facilitates students to communicate uninhibitedly.5) Demerits1 It may not appeal to learners as they advance in their compe

55、tence.2 A lot of complex language structures cannot be effectively incorporated into the imperative.3 Learners needs for unrehearsed language cannot be met by such dramatic nature of language learning.4 It does not have basic textbooks, which may be difficult for both teachers and learners.4. The En

56、glish curriculum and coursebooks1. Curriculum: Curriculum refers to the programme of studies of an educational institution. It refers to the substance of what is taught in a given subject: (a) defining objectives, (b) determining content, (c) indicating some sort of sequence or progression.2. Syllab

57、us: A syllabus provides a focus for what should be studied, along with a rational for how the content should be selected and ordered. 1) Characteristics of a Syllabus:1 consists of a comprehensive list of content items (words, structures, topics) and process items (tasks, methods)2 is ordered (easie

58、r, more essential items first)3 has explicit objectives (usually expressed in the introduction)4 is a public document5 may indicate a time schedule6 may indicate a preferred methodology or approach7 may recommend materials3. coursebook: 1) definition: A coursebook is a textbook of which the teacher and, usually, each student has a copy, and which is in principle to be followed systematically as the basis for a language course. Coursebooks are best seen as a r