-PAGE8-Chapter3LexiconThreesensesofwordAphysicallydefinableunit.Wordsmaybeseenasasetofsoundssegmentsorwritinglettersbetweentwopausesorblanks.Wordsbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm.Agrammaticalunit.Ranks：clausecomplex——clause——phrase/wordgroup——word——morphemeIdentificationofwordsStability.Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure.Relativeunterruptibility.Newelementsshouldnotbeinsertedintoaword.Aminimalfreeform.(LeonardBloomfield1933)ClassificationofwordsVariable&invariablewordsVariablewordshaveinflectionalchanges;theyaremainlynouns,verbsandpronouns,e.g.follow-follows-followed-followingInvariablewordsdonothaveinflectionalendings,e.g.since,happy,to,etc.Grammatical&lexicalwordsGrammaticalwords(functionword)areusedmainlyforconstructinggroup,phrase,clause,clausecomplex,oreventext.Theyservetolinktogetherdifferentcontentparts,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexicalwords(contentword)areusedforreferringtosubstance,action,andquality.Theycarrythemaincontentofalanguage,suchas,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Closed-class&open-classedwordsClosed-class:itsmembershipfixedorlimited,onecannoteasilyaddordeduceanewmember,.suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,andothers.Open-class:Itsmembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Whennewideas,inventions,ordiscoveriesemerge,newmembersarebeingaddedtothelexicon,suchas,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs.Note:Prepositionisrelativeopenbecauseregarding,inspiteof,accordingto,and,manyothersarenowregardedasprepositionsandcomplexprepositions.Auxiliaryverbsarerelativelyclosedinnumber.Wordclass9wordclassed:noun,verb,adjective,adverb,pronoun,preposition,conjunction,article,interjectionParticles:·Infinitivemarker“to”·Negativemarker“not”·Subordinateunitsinphrasalverbs,e.g.,watchout,breakdownAuxiliariesTraditionalauxiliaries&modalverbsPro-formPro-adjective/pro-verb/pro-adverb/pro-locativeDeterminers:wordsusedbeforenounactingasheadofanominalgroup,anddeterminethekindofthereferencethenominalgrouphas.·definitethe·indefinitea/an·partitivesome·universalallPre-determiner:all,half,double,twice,one-third,etc.Central-determiner:articles,demonstrativepronouns,indefinitepronouns,possessivepronouns.Post-determiner:cardinalnumerals,ordinalnumerals,generalordinals,quatifiers.Morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingoralteringthemeaning.Freemorpheme:morphemethatcanmakeupwordsbyitself.Boundmorpheme:morphemethatmustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme.Root:thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithoutdestroyingitsmeaning.（Thepartofthewordthatisleftwhenalltheaffixedareremoved.）Freeroot:rootsthatcanstandbethemselvesandarethebaseformsofwords.Boundroot:rootscanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.e.g.–ceive,-cur.Somerootshavebothfreeandboundvariants.Sleep-slept,child-childrenAffix:thetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Prefix:para-,un-Suffix:-tion,-alInfix:abso-bloomingly-lutelyStem:anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.（Stemmaybethesameasaroot,maycontainarootandoneormorethenonederivationalaffixes.）Inflectionalvs.derivationalInflectionalaffixes:productiveacrossanentirecategory.onlyaddagrammaticalmeaningtothestem.donotchangethewordclassofthestem..oftenconditionedbynon-semanticlinguisticfactors,e.g.thepresenttensethirdpersonsingularmarker.normallysuffixesinEnglish.smallinnumberinEnglish.Derivationalaffixes:notproductiveacrossanentirecategory,e.g.–notallverbscanbechangedintonounbyattaching–tion,onlysomeverbscanbechangedinthisway.oftenchangethelexicalcontent.mayormaynotchangethewordclassofthestem.moreoftenbasedonsimplymeaningdistinctions.canbebothprefixesandsuffixes.muchlargerinnumber.InflectionalMorphology:thestudyofinflections.Derivational/LexicalMorphology:thestudyofwordformation.Inflectionindicatesgrammaticalrelationsbeaddinginflectionalaffixes,e.g.number,person,finiteness,aspectandcase.Word-Formationreferstotheprocessofhowwordsareformed.Compound(Compositionaltype):wordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexical(free)morpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.Completeunited,hyphenated,separated.Endocentriccompound:(Verbalcompound/syntheticcompound)theheadofaendocentriccompoundisade-verb(derivedfromaverb).Usuallythefirstmemberisaparticipantsoftheprocessverb.Exocentriccompound:thefirstwordinanexocentriccompoundisderivedfromaverb.Derivation:showsarelationshipbetweenrootsandaffixes.Sememe:thesmallestcomponentofmeaning.onemorphemevs.onesememe-lessonemorphemevs.morethanonesememea-onesememevs.morethanonemorphemeil-,im-,ne-,un-morphemesthathavenospecificsememeen-joy,cran-berryfunctionchangesinbothsememeandmorphemewithoutmorphemechange.Theremayalsobenomorphemechangeinaword,butboththegrammaticalandthesemanticcategorieswouldchangeaccordingtothecontextitoccurs.e.g.runacompany/inashortrunverbandevent/nounandthingMorphophonology/Morphonology/Morphophonemics/Morphonemics:abranchoflinguisticsthatreferstotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffectthemorphemeforms,and,correspondingly,themorphologicalfactorsthataffectthephonemeforms,Itstudiestheinterrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphology.asinglemorphemevs.asinglemorphemePluralityboys/z/Possessivecasejohn’sMeansnothingraiseasinglemorphemevs.multiplephonemeMonophonemicdogsMonosyllabiclove+lyPolysyllabictobaccoAllomorph:differentshapesandphoneticformsofamorpheme.Morphemetranscription:{-s~-z~-iz~-i:~-n~-ai~-?}Morphologicallyconditioned:have3requirementsAlltheallomorphshouldhavethesamesememe.Alltheallomorphsshouldbeincomplementarydistribution.Allomorphsthathavethesamesememeshouldoccurinparallelformation.Thissuggeststhatallomorphshavethesamefunctionalplaceinthegrammaticalstructureofthelanguage.Wordformationinvention：manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtechnologicalandeconomicactivities.Blending:arelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtogethertheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyonlyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.Abbreviation/Clipping:anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart(advertisement-ad)cuttingtheinitialpart(telephone-phone)cuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly(influenza-flu)Acronym:madeupfromtheinitiallettersofthewordsinaphraseoridiomorthenameofanorganization.WTO-WorldTradeOrganizationAids-acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndromeBack-formation:anunusuallyabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginaryaffixformalongerformalreadyinlanguage.Editor-editgangling-gangleAnalogicalcreation:Borrowing：frommanydifferentlanguages,esp.Latin,Greek,French,andSpanish.Loanwords：bothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyalightadaptation.Kung-fu(Chinese)Loanblend：partoftheformisborrowed,partisnative,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.Coconut(Spanish)Loanshift：themeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative.Bridge(acardgamefromItaly)Loantranslation：eachmorphemeorwordistranslatedfromtheequivalentmorphemeorwordintoanotherlanguage.Verselibre-freeverseSemanticchangeBroadening:aprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsoriginallyspecificsensetoarelativelygeneralone.Narrowing:theoriginalmeaningifawordcanbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense.Meaningshift:thedeparturefromtheoriginaldomainasaresultofitsmetaphoricalusage.Classshift/Zero-derivation/conversion:byshifting