1、Lesson Nine Contract Law10/10/1法律英語第1頁第1頁The web of the lawMay not be quite seamless法律之網(wǎng)也許并非堅固無縫They are not ironclad and unchanging法律并非打不破和不可改變。10/10/2法律英語第2頁第2頁Contract Definition A contract is basically an agreement between two or more people which creates an obligation to do, or not do, somethin

2、g. The agreement creates a legal relationship of rights and duties. If the agreement is broken, then the law provides certain remedies. 10/10/3法律英語第3頁第3頁Three FactorsThere are three factors necessary to create a contract: 1) an offer, 2) acceptance, and 3) consideration. One party makes an offer, th

3、e second party must accept the offer and there must be consideration exchanged. Consideration has to be something of value.10/10/4法律英語第4頁第4頁Example of ContractsEmployment contractsService ContractsBuilding ConstructionInsurance ContractsContract involving real propertySale of Intangibles(stocks, bon

4、ds, patents, copyrights,etc)10/10/5法律英語第5頁第5頁Contract lawContract law covers the legal implications of a contract. For instance, contract law determines what is and is not consideration, whether a contract was actually intended, if the parties making the contract were legally competent, whether ther

5、e was fraud or duress involved, or how a contract is terminated. 10/10/6法律英語第6頁第6頁BackgroundUniform Commercial CodeConsumer Protection StatutesLabor LawInsurance Law涉及協(xié)議問題10/10/7法律英語第7頁第7頁美國協(xié)議法由法律確保執(zhí)行強制執(zhí)行程度法律補救辦法Expectation damages預期補償金Agreed upon remedies補救協(xié)議Equitable relief衡平救助10/10/8法律英語第8頁第8頁rel

6、iefintheformofspecificperformance特殊履行救助方式theinjunction禁令（暫時或最后采用或不采用某種行為命令）thedevelopmentofsocalled maximsofequitylaw形成所謂衡平法座右銘Specialcharacteristicsofequitylaw：10/10/9法律英語第9頁第9頁However,equitablereliefregularlywill lieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefis inadequate.但是，只有當普通法救助不充足時，才合用衡平救助。10/10/10法律英語第10頁第1

7、0頁Forinstance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealproperty willbegrantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesince theycannotcompensatethebuyer inviewoftheuniquenessattributedto realproperty. 比如，對購買不動產(chǎn)提供特殊履行救助，由于普通法補償被認為不充足，由于不動產(chǎn)含有特殊性，普通法補償無法補償買方。10/10/11法律英語第11頁第11頁假如房屋賣方于成交后出爾反爾了，那么買方按

8、普通法原則之要求得提出損害補償之訴。但買方如要求強制賣方發(fā)售（即要求履行），則買方則援引是衡平法上原則了。Suppose that a vendor of house backs out on the deal. The vendee may sue for damages under common-law principles, but if he wants a court to force the seller to sell (specific performance) he uses principles developed in equity.10/10/12法律英語第12頁第12

9、頁“ordinary”commonlawreliefofdamages普通法要求補償金救助“extraordinary”equityremedyofspecificperformance衡平法要求特定履行救助10/10/13法律英語第13頁第13頁 TEXTContract an agreement between two or more persons.Not merely a shared belief 不但僅是共有想法A common understanding as to something并且是對一些未來將要進行事項有共同理解10/10/14法律英語第14頁第14頁Contract

10、Document The set of papers in which such agreement is set forth.文獻陳說契約一系列文獻。10/10/15法律英語第15頁第15頁For lawyers Contract - an agreement that has legal effect. 協(xié)議是含有法律效力契約。It creates obligations for which some sort of legal enforcement will be available if performance is not forthcoming as promised. 它設(shè)置了

11、當不按約履行時，便可由某種法律強制手段確保實行義務。10/10/16法律英語第16頁第16頁Three elements in a transactioncontract1. The agreement-in-fact事實協(xié)議2. The agreement-in-written書面協(xié)議3. The set of rights and duties 一系列權(quán)利與義務10/10/17法律英語第17頁第17頁THE WAYS訂立協(xié)議和執(zhí)行協(xié)議辦法 The role of lawyers and judges1. In creating contracts在制定協(xié)議中作用；2.in deciding

12、 disputes that may arise with respect to their performance在裁決履行協(xié)議時也許出現(xiàn)爭議時作用；3.in fashioning appropriate remedies for their breach在形成對其違約適當補救時作用10/10/18法律英語第18頁第18頁Property A great of thing are susceptible “ownership”Tangible 有形 Intangible 無形10/10/19法律英語第19頁第19頁Ring bulldozerGone with the windThe Emp

13、ire State Building10/10/20法律英語第20頁第20頁Rights 國家保護該“所有些人”使用、享受乃至花費該物權(quán)利，將所有其它人排除在這種權(quán)利之外。Use Enjoy Consume Exclusion 10/10/21法律英語第21頁第21頁Real property 不動產(chǎn)Land buildings動產(chǎn)personal property10/10/22法律英語第22頁第22頁/real property:all land, structures, firmly attached and integrated equipment, anything growing

14、on the land, and all interests in the property.personal property (personalty) : movable assets (things, including animals) which are not real property, money or investments.10/10/23法律英語第23頁第23頁Less tangible property不太有形資產(chǎn)Copyrights 版權(quán)Patents 專利權(quán)Shares of corporate stock 公司股權(quán)Negotiable instruments 票據(jù)

15、權(quán)10/10/24法律英語第24頁第24頁Any social thatRecognizes property rightsAlso address the question of how it should respond when someone violates those rights10/10/25法律英語第25頁第25頁Even societies that do not permit private ownership of wealth to the degree that ours does are likely to recognize the personal right

16、s of individuals to be free from certain kinds of conduct 即使是那些對財產(chǎn)私有權(quán)許可沒有達到我們這種程序社會，也會認可個人人身權(quán)利不受某種行為侵犯。10/10/26法律英語第26頁第26頁certain kinds of conduct給人造成身體傷害其它對個人自由或尊嚴侵犯Infliction of physical injuryOther interferences with freedom or dignity10/10/27法律英語第27頁第27頁Criminal law vs. tort lawCriminal law foc

17、uses in those violations of personal and property rights that society deems serious enough to be deterred by the threat of severe punishment for their commissionTort law considers what remedy should be made to the individuals so injured10/10/28法律英語第28頁第28頁Criminal lawtort lawoverlapTreason判國罪Tax eva

18、sion偷稅罪Slander誹謗10/10/29法律英語第29頁第29頁Ownership of propertyInclude the right to use and consume the thing owned所有權(quán)包括對屬于自己物品使用和花費權(quán)利be more to the advantage of the owner to transfer the right of the ownership to some other person in exchange for something else of value有時所有者以所有權(quán)與其它人互換有價值東西也許更有利。10/10/30法

19、律英語第30頁第30頁10/10/31法律英語第31頁第31頁Agreements for exchange are the means by which some resources are assembled and put to productive use.互換契約是將一些資源組合起來，使之得到有效利用手段。10/10/32法律英語第32頁第32頁Some agreement for exchange call for the immediate and simultaneous exchange of money for goods and services. 有效互換契約要求鈔票與

20、貨品、服務馬上和同時互換。10/10/33法律英語第33頁第33頁Exchange of significant size涉及到大額交易時Both the planning and performance to be spread over a considerable period of time交易計劃和履行都要經(jīng)歷相稱長時間。10/10/34法律英語第34頁第34頁The law of contractsLegal mechanism for protecting the expectations that arise from the making of agreements for

21、the future exchange of various types of performance.協(xié)議法是保護預期法律機制，該預期產(chǎn)生于就未來交易各類履行而制定契約。轉(zhuǎn)讓財產(chǎn)提供服務支付貨幣10/10/35法律英語第35頁第35頁Legal problems do not always fit neatly into the pigeonholes that legal theorists have created.法律問題不也許總是與法理學家所創(chuàng)建分類完全相符。Frequently they raise issues involving more than one body of la

22、w.法律問題往往涉及到不止一部法律。10/10/36法律英語第36頁第36頁“fraud” conduct欺詐行為Lease agreements between landlord and tenant Property lawContract lawA breach of contractA tort10/10/37法律英語第37頁第37頁The web of the lawMay not be quite seamless法律之網(wǎng)也許并非堅固無縫They are not ironclad and unchanging法律并非打不破和不可改變。10/10/38法律英語第38頁第38頁Sour

23、ce /authority法律淵源 Primary source 首要法源Secondary source次要法源 以前司法判決成文法法令勸導性法源法學家解釋美國法學會法律注釋匯編10/10/39法律英語第39頁第39頁首要法源10/10/40法律英語第40頁第40頁次要法源10/10/41法律英語第41頁第41頁What are Restatements of the Law法律注釋匯編Restatements are secondary sources that seek to restate the legal rules that constitute the common law i

24、n a particular area. They are written by the American Law Institute (ALI), a prestigious legal organization composed of noted professors, judges and lawyers. The ALI has completed Restatements in 15 areas of law including Torts, Contracts, Property, Conflict of Laws, Foreign Relations Law, and Produ

25、cts Liability. 10/10/42法律英語第42頁第42頁Contract lawCommon law Judge-made law法官定法Rules distilled from a composite of court decisions in prior cases. 從以前案件各種法官判決意見中抽取出來規(guī)則10/10/43法律英語第43頁第43頁Technical jargon 專業(yè)術(shù)語Full of strange wordsFamiliar words with unfamiliar or specialized meaningAssumpsit 口頭商定Quantum

26、 meruit按合理價格給付 Consideration對價 Offer要約10/10/44法律英語第44頁第44頁Judicial system of decision-making 司法決議體制Stare decisis 遵從前例adherence to past decisions (Precedents)A prior decision with facts sufficiently similar to the case “subjudice”, that the court feels obliged to follow it and to render a similar dec

27、ision.以前案例事實與尚未判決案件事實非常相同，法院認為有義務按照前例做出類似判決。10/10/45法律英語第45頁第45頁Doctrine of stare decisisWhere precedent merely requires that courts look to previous decisions for guidance, stare decisis requires that a court follow their own decisions and the decisions of higher courts within the same jurisdiction

28、.For example, in the U.S., a state trial court must allow its own decisions and the decisions of appellate courts in that state; an intermediate appellate court must follow its own decisions and the decisions of the states highest appellate court. Federal courts of appeal must generally follow their

29、 own prior decisions and those of the U.S. States Supreme Court, but they are not bound by decisions of federal district courts or other appellate courts. 10/10/46法律英語第46頁第46頁Terms and proper namesTwo types of judicial precedentsBinding precedent: Where the doctrine of stare decisis applies, precede

30、nt is binding and a courts options are limited. A court must harmonize the result in the present case with past decisions. Only after explaining why previous cases are inapplicable may a court fashion new rules or modify existing ones. A court may never ignore or contradict binding precedent.Persuas

31、ive precedent: Where the doctrine of stare decisis is not applicable, as with decisions from other jurisdictions or lower courts in the same jurisdiction, courts are free to follow previous decisions or ignore them. Although courts are not bound by such decisions, they remain persuasive because thei

32、r reasoning can illuminate possible solutions to a problem.10/10/47法律英語第47頁第47頁Stare decisisLatin for to stand by things decided. Stare decisis is essentially the doctrine of precedent. Courts cite to stare decisis when an issue has been previously brought to the court and a ruling already issued. G

33、enerally, courts will adhere to the previous ruling, though this is not universally true. 10/10/48法律英語第48頁第48頁10/10/49法律英語第49頁第49頁從兩個方面證實以判例法為主要依據(jù)法律制度合法性1. Offers a high degree of predictability of decision 提升了判決可預見性程度2. Puts a rein on the nature proclivity of judges to decide cases on the basis of

34、prejudice, personal emotion, or other improper factors. 限制法官在案件判決時以偏見、個人情感或其它不恰當原由于基礎(chǔ)自然癖好。10/10/50法律英語第50頁第50頁10/10/51法律英語第51頁第51頁The characteristic of a systemWhich may sometimes be a virtue, sometimes a defect, of being static and conservative, generally oriented toward preservation of the status

35、quo.遵從前例制度特性是靜止和守舊，總體上趨向于保持現(xiàn)實狀況，這有時是長處，有時是缺點。10/10/52法律英語第52頁第52頁案例法長處，靈活性和成長能力，伴隨一件件新案件告到法院，一個個新判決也就補充起來。這樣法律就能跟上時代步伐并適應不斷改變客觀情況。案例法害處，就是上述長處反而。比如邊沁曾對事后立法原則加以指責并稱判例制度為狗法，他說：“是法官們在制度共同法，你知道他們是怎么樣制定嗎？就同一個人替他那條狗立法同樣，狗做了人不讓做事情，人們事先袖手旁觀，然后在事發(fā)后揍他。這是人替狗立法辦法，也是法官替你我立法方式。The advantage of the case law is the

36、 power of flexibility and growth. New decisions are constantly being added as new cases come before the courts. In this way the law tends to keep pace with the times and can adapt itself to changing circumstances. The drawbacks of case law in some cases merely the converse aspects of the advantages.

37、 For example, jeremy bentham criticised the principle of the law following the event dogs law system, it is, he says,the judges that make the common law , do you know how they make it ?just as a man makes laws for his dog, when your dog does something you want to break him of , you wait till he does

38、 it and then beat him , this is the way you make laws for your dog, this is the way the judge makes laws for you.10/10/53法律英語第53頁第53頁案例法受另一個指責，則是先例拘束力限制了審判上裁量，有些人還說，法官們是在替自己鑄造腳鐐。這一點能夠用共同受雇說來加以闡明，此說是由上議院在普里斯特告福爾一案中所要求（1837），它說，假如兩人在受雇范圍內(nèi)行事時，其中一人被同事傷害了，那么他倆雇主對這一疏忽不代為負責。在工業(yè)大發(fā)展時期利用這一規(guī)則，是極不公道。但是這條規(guī)則在（194

39、8年人身傷害法律改良法）予以廢除前，卻拘束了法官百多年之久。這其間，法官能做，只是限制這一規(guī)則利用。A further criticism is that the binding force of precedent limits judicial discretion. It has been said that judges are engaged in forging fetters for their own feet. This can beillustrated by the doctrine of common employment. Which was laid down by

40、 the house of lords in Priestley v.Fowler(1837). This doctrine said that if a employee was injured by a fellow employee whilst both were acting within the scope of their employment, their employer was not liable vicariously for the negligence.the rule operated in a most unjust fasion during the peri

41、od of great industrial development, but it continued to bind judges for over a century until it was finally abolished by the Law Reform(Personal Injuries)Act,1948.all the judges could do in the meantime was to limit its scope. 10/10/54法律英語第54頁第54頁Blind adherence When a common law judge concludes tha

42、t blind adherence to precedent would produce an unjust result in the case presented for decision.普通法法官盲目堅持判例，也會造成對當前案例判決不公正結(jié)果。10/10/55法律英語第55頁第55頁避免辦法：A precedent is considered to be “binding” on a court only if it was decided by that same court or by an appellate court of higher rank in the same ju

43、risdiction.同一個管轄區(qū)相同法院或其上級巡回法院作出先例判決才有約束力。Other precedents are be “ persuasive”.其它判例只含有勸導性。10/10/56法律英語第56頁第56頁A precedent If a precedent of the latter type is in fact unpersuasive, the judge is free to disregard it. 假如后一個類型判例事實上沒有勸導性，法官能夠忽略該判例。10/10/57法律英語第57頁第57頁If the precedent is not merely persu

44、asive, but binding, it cannot simply be ignored. It may, however, be avoided. 假如判例不但有勸導性并且有約束力，那么該判例不能簡樸地被忽略，但卻能夠被回避。A precedent 10/10/58法律英語第58頁第58頁If the facts of the present case do not include a fact that appears to have been necessary (“material”) to the earlier decision, the court may “disting

45、uish” the precedent, render a different decision. 假如以前判決不包含對當前案例有實質(zhì)必要影響事實，那么法院能夠“區(qū)分”前例，提出不同判決。A precedent 10/10/59法律英語第59頁第59頁If the earlier precedent is indeed binding, but is difficult or impossible to distinguish, there is one other way to avoid its effect.假如比較早判例確實有約束力，但是難以或無法區(qū)別，有一個其它辦法避免其效力。A p

46、recedent 10/10/60法律英語第60頁第60頁If the court of decision is the one that created the precedent (or is a higher court), it can simply “overrule” the early decision.假如判決法院與作出先例法院相同，或者比作出先例法院等級高，它能夠“推翻” 以前判決。A precedent 10/10/61法律英語第61頁第61頁10/10/62法律英語第62頁第62頁Overruling relatively drastic actionIs usually

47、 reserved for instances in which the court feels that the rule established by the earlier precedent was ill conceived at the outset or it has been outmoded by the later developments.推翻前例是個比較激烈行為，普通在法院覺得以前判例一開始就設(shè)計錯誤時或者伴隨以后發(fā)展該判例不合時宜時才采用。10/10/63法律英語第63頁第63頁Contract lawHistorically, as common law普通法Rat

48、her than statute 制定法Exception : “statute of frauds”“欺詐條例”是個例外Requires certain contracts to be evidenced by a signed writing 該條例要求一些協(xié)議是書面協(xié)議。10/10/64法律英語第64頁第64頁Statute of fraudsLaw in every state which requires that certain documents be in writing, such as real property titles and transfers (conveyan

49、ces), leases for more than a year, wills and some types of contracts. The original statute was enacted in England in 1677 to prevent fraudulent title claims.10/10/65法律英語第65頁第65頁Statute of fraudsThe statute of frauds has itself become so overlaid by court decisions that it has more of quality of comm

50、on law than of a modern statute.該欺詐條例本身已添加了如此多法官判決意見，以至于它含有普通法品質(zhì)已經(jīng)超出其當代制定法品質(zhì)。10/10/66法律英語第66頁第66頁Contract law Essentially a common law system, except be affected by a remarkable modern statute, the Uniform Commercial Code. 除非受到著名當代制定法統(tǒng)一商法典影響，協(xié)議法至今還保留著普通法體系。10/10/67法律英語第67頁第67頁When a court decided a

51、case governed by a statute, its reasoning differs from that used when common law principles are applied.當法院依照制訂法判案時，法院推論與采取普通法標準時是不同。10/10/68法律英語第68頁第68頁Statute Any court , even the highest court of the jurisdiction, is bound to follow the provisions of a valid statute that apply to the dispute befo

52、re it. 所有法院甚至最高法院都要依據(jù)有效制定法條款要求來處理提交到它面前爭議。10/10/69法律英語第69頁第69頁Fundamental political tenet The legislature has ultimate lawmaking power so long as its acts within the bounds of its constitutional authority. 社會基本政治原則：只要在憲法授權(quán)范圍之內(nèi)，立法機關(guān)有最后立法權(quán)。Modify修改Eliminate廢除10/10/70法律英語第70頁第70頁對制訂法文字有不同解釋Courts seek

53、to ascertain the legislatures purpose in enacting it, in order to adopt a construction that will best effectuate that purpose.法院試圖擬定立法機關(guān)意圖，以便采用能最好地實現(xiàn)該意圖解釋。Legislative history10/10/71法律英語第71頁第71頁American Law InstituteFormed in 1923. Preparation and promulgation of what purported to be accurate and au

54、thoritative summaries of the rules of common law in various fields 美國法律協(xié)會準備和公布各領(lǐng)域準確權(quán)威普通法規(guī)則匯編。Restatement注釋匯編10/10/72法律英語第72頁第72頁American Law InstituteThe American Law Institute(ALI) was established in 1923 to define, summarize, or restate existing common law. Between 1923 and 1944, Restatements were

55、 adopted for the law of agency, conflict of laws, contracts, judgments, property, restitution, security, torts, and trusts. 10/10/73法律英語第73頁第73頁The Restatement of Contracts協(xié)議法注釋匯編The first and most successful “restatement”Acceptance and use by the bench and barAdopted by ALI in 1932. 10/10/74法律英語第74

56、頁第74頁The RestatementConsists of “black-letter” statements of the “general rule”關(guān)于“普通規(guī)則”“黑體字”陳說Supported with at least some commentary and illustration 至少有幾種注釋和例證作補充Dont have the force of law沒有法律效力10/10/75法律英語第75頁第75頁The RestatementsSecondary authority 次要法源Remarkably persuasive 非常有說服力A court often justify its decision by simply citing and quoting The Restatements rule on a given point.法院