2025年大學試題(醫(yī)學)-機能實驗學歷年參考題庫含答案解析(5套典型考題)2025年大學試題(醫(yī)學)-機能實驗學歷年參考題庫含答案解析(篇1)【題干1】家兔作為藥理學實驗常用動物，其選擇標準不包括以下哪項？【選項】A.體重3-5kgB.雌雄分籠飼養(yǎng)C.攝食量每日80-100gD.鼻腔對氨氣敏感【參考答案】C【詳細解析】正確答案為C。家兔體重通常為2-3kg，攝食量標準為每日50-70g；鼻腔對氨氣敏感是家兔的重要生理特性，雄性家兔因鼻甲骨結構更敏感，故需雌雄分籠。選項C數(shù)據(jù)與實際不符，屬干擾項?！绢}干2】標準Ⅱ導聯(lián)心電圖記錄的是？【選項】A.胸骨右緣第V1肋間導聯(lián)B.胸骨左緣第V5肋間導聯(lián)C.肩關節(jié)與左胸鎖關節(jié)連線中點垂直導聯(lián)D.胸骨左緣第V4肋間導聯(lián)【參考答案】C【詳細解析】正確答案為C。Ⅱ導聯(lián)定位為胸骨體與左鎖骨中線交點處水平導聯(lián)，選項D為V4導聯(lián)（心電監(jiān)護常用），選項A、B為V1、V5導聯(lián)。此考點常與臨床心電圖判讀混淆，需結合解剖定位記憶?！绢}干3】離心機轉速2000rpm對應的離心力約為？【選項】A.1000×gB.2000×gC.3000×gD.4000×g【參考答案】B【詳細解析】正確答案為B。離心力計算公式：F=1.118×r×(rpm/1000)^2×g，其中r為半徑（m）。2000rpm時，若離心管距轉軸0.15m，F(xiàn)≈1.118×0.15×(2)^2≈0.826×g≈826×g，選項B（2000×g）為近似值，臨床實驗中通常取整數(shù)范圍?！绢}干4】離體心臟灌流液中必須包含的電解質不包括？【選項】A.NaCl118mMB.KCl5.4mMC.CaCl21.2mMD.葡萄糖5.5mM【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。標準Hering氏液組成為：NaCl118mM、KCl5.4mM、CaCl21.2mM、MgCl21.2mM、NaHCO324mM、葡萄糖5.5mM、Na2EDTA0.02mM。選項A濃度過高（生理鹽水為0.9%），會導致細胞膜電位異常，屬干擾項?！绢}干5】實驗動物麻醉深度判斷錯誤的是？【選項】A.眼瞼反射消失B.翻身反射減弱C.肌張力完全消失D.呼吸頻率降至正常50%【參考答案】D【詳細解析】正確答案為D。理想麻醉狀態(tài)應保留角膜反射（選項A錯誤），但深麻醉時呼吸頻率會降低，正常呼吸頻率為40-60次/分，降至20次/分提示呼吸抑制，而非50%。選項C肌張力消失屬于過深麻醉表現(xiàn)?！绢}干6】離體器官灌流實驗中，灌流壓力通常設定為？【選項】A.10cmH2OB.30cmH2OC.50cmH2OD.70cmH2O【參考答案】B【詳細解析】正確答案為B。灌流壓力需覆蓋器官自身靜水壓（約30cmH2O），過高（如D選項）會導致血管破裂，過低（如A選項）灌流不足。該參數(shù)在《生理學實驗指導》中明確標注為30-40cmH2O，選項B符合常規(guī)范圍?！绢}干7】藥物靜脈注射后首過效應最顯著的給藥途徑是？【選項】A.頸靜脈B.股動脈C.腹腔內D.皮下【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。首過效應主要發(fā)生在肝門靜脈循環(huán)的給藥途徑（如頸靜脈→門靜脈→肝臟），選項A符合該機制。選項B為動脈系統(tǒng)，直接進入體循環(huán)；選項C藥物經(jīng)門靜脈同樣存在首過效應，但實驗中常因操作難度選用頸靜脈。【題干8】實驗動物處死前需確認的反射消失包括？【選項】A.豎毛反射B.瞳孔對光反射C.腹壁反射D.迷走神經(jīng)反射【參考答案】C【詳細解析】正確答案為C。根據(jù)《動物實驗倫理規(guī)范》，處死前需確認無自主運動（豎毛反射）、角膜反射及瞳孔對光反射（選項A、B、D），但腹壁反射（腹肌收縮）因個體差異可能不消失，故不作為必須確認項目。選項C為干擾項。【題干9】標準肝功能實驗中，ALT活性檢測波長為？【選項】A.340nmB.450nmC.570nmD.600nm【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。ALT（谷丙轉氨酶）檢測采用連續(xù)監(jiān)測法，其催化反應在340nm波長處有最大吸收峰（NADPH→NADP+）。選項B（450nm）為LDH檢測波長，選項C、D非酶活性檢測常用波長?！绢}干10】實驗動物麻醉后，為維持體溫應采取？【選項】A.鋪蓋保溫毯B.使用加熱墊C.靜脈注射溫生理鹽水D.氣管插管加溫【參考答案】B【詳細解析】正確答案為B。麻醉動物體溫會降至35-36℃，需采用恒溫裝置（如36℃加熱墊）或恒溫水浴箱維持。選項A保溫毯僅限短期使用，C、D與體溫維持無關?！绢}干11】體外循環(huán)實驗中，氧合指數(shù)計算公式為？【選項】A.(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×0.8)B.(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×1.0)C.(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×1.4)D.(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×2.0)【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。氧合指數(shù)（PaO2/FiO2）用于評估急性呼吸窘迫綜合征（ARDS）氧合狀態(tài)，公式為(PaO2×FiO2)/(PaCO2×0.8)。選項B忽略肺泡-動脈氧分壓差（PAOP），C、D為干擾參數(shù)。【題干12】離體肝灌流實驗中，理想的肝血流量為？【選項】A.100-150ml/(min·100g)B.200-300ml/(min·100g)C.300-400ml/(min·100g)D.400-500ml/(min·100g)【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。正常肝臟血流量約150ml/(min·100g)，實驗中需維持該水平以模擬生理狀態(tài)。選項B、C、D數(shù)值超過肝臟實際代謝能力，會導致肝細胞缺血壞死?！绢}干13】標準腦電監(jiān)護導聯(lián)中，F(xiàn)P1為？【選項】A.眶上切跡與外眥連線中點B.眶上切跡與耳廓最高點連線中點C.額角與耳廓最高點連線中點D.額角與外眥連線中點【參考答案】B【詳細解析】正確答案為B。FP1（前額導聯(lián)）定位為眶上切跡（額部正中）與耳廓最高點連線中點，選項A為FP2（后額導聯(lián)），選項C、D為非標準導聯(lián)。【題干14】藥物局部注射后，藥物吸收順序由快到慢為？【選項】A.皮膚→黏膜→подкожнаяжироваяклетчатка（皮下脂肪）B.黏膜→皮膚→皮下脂肪C.皮下脂肪→皮膚→黏膜D.皮膚→皮下脂肪→黏膜【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。藥物經(jīng)皮膚吸收需通過表皮→真皮→表皮屏障（最慢），黏膜吸收（如鼻黏膜）通過上皮層（最快），皮下脂肪吸收次之。選項A符合藥物吸收速率規(guī)律，選項B、C、D順序錯誤?！绢}干15】實驗動物給藥后，藥代動力學參數(shù)T1/2反映？【選項】A.藥物起效時間B.血藥濃度達峰時間C.藥物半衰期D.組織分布速度【參考答案】C【詳細解析】正確答案為C。T1/2（半衰期）指藥物濃度降至初始值一半所需時間，反映代謝速度。選項A（起效時間）與給藥途徑相關，B（達峰時間）由分布速度決定，D（分布速度）影響藥物濃度-時間曲線形狀。【題干16】離體腎灌流實驗中，腎小球濾過壓主要來源為？【選項】A.腎小球毛細血管靜水壓B.腎小囊內壓C.腎小球囊壁通透性D.血管內皮細胞張力【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。腎小球濾過壓=腎小球毛細血管靜水壓（約55mmHg）-腎小囊內壓（約15mmHg）-有效濾過壓（約30mmHg）。選項B為負壓，C、D影響濾過率而非靜水壓來源。【題干17】實驗動物麻醉前禁食時間一般為？【選項】A.4-6小時B.8-12小時C.24-36小時D.按實驗要求調整【參考答案】B【詳細解析】正確答案為B。麻醉前禁食4-6小時可避免胃內容物反流，8-12小時可減少腸道內容物對代謝的影響。選項C（24-36小時）適用于大手術動物，選項D為干擾項?！绢}干18】藥物靜脈注射的藥代動力學模型中，AUC與T1/2關系為？【選項】A.AUC與T1/2成正比B.AUC與T1/2成反比C.AUC與T1/2無關D.AUC與T1/2呈指數(shù)關系【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。AUC（藥時曲線下面積）=Dose/T1/2，當劑量恒定時，T1/2越大，AUC越高。選項B、C、D不符合藥代動力學基本公式?！绢}干19】離體心臟灌流實驗中，理想的灌流液溫度為？【選項】A.25-28℃B.30-35℃C.37-40℃D.42-45℃【參考答案】B【詳細解析】正確答案為B。生理溫度為37℃，但心臟離體后需降低2-3℃（30-35℃）以減少代謝消耗。選項A（25-28℃）導致心臟驟停，選項C、D溫度過高引發(fā)細胞損傷。【題干20】實驗動物麻醉后，為維持呼吸功能應采取？【選項】A.氣管插管加壓通氣B.腹腔內注射呼吸興奮劑C.靜脈注射阿托品D.氣道內滴入表面麻醉劑【參考答案】A【詳細解析】正確答案為A。全麻動物需氣管插管并控制呼吸，選項B（呼吸興奮劑）僅用于呼吸抑制，C（阿托品）抑制腺體分泌，D（表面麻醉劑）用于氣道操作而非維持呼吸。2025年大學試題(醫(yī)學)-機能實驗學歷年參考題庫含答案解析(篇2)【題干1】動作電位的4期復極過程主要依賴于哪種離子的跨膜運動？A.鈉離子內流B.鉀離子外流C.鈣離子內流D.氯離子外流【參考答案】C【詳細解析】動作電位復極的4期由鉀離子外流（K?）主導，但鈣離子內流（Ca2?）通過L型鈣通道在復極初期起一定緩沖作用，最終復極完成仍依賴K?通道開放。選項C的鈣離子內流是關鍵機制，與電生理學基礎實驗現(xiàn)象一致?！绢}干2】下丘腦視前區(qū)-下丘腦前部（PVH-PRH）神經(jīng)元釋放的神經(jīng)遞質屬于哪類？A.肽類遞質B.氨基酸類遞質C.單胺類遞質D.乙酰膽堿【參考答案】A【詳細解析】PVH神經(jīng)元分泌抗利尿激素（ADH）和催產(chǎn)素，二者均為含氮多肽類遞質。實驗中發(fā)現(xiàn)PVH-PRH軸損傷可導致尿崩癥，印證其肽類遞質特性。選項A符合神經(jīng)內分泌經(jīng)典理論?！绢}干3】β?受體激動劑治療哮喘的主要作用機制是？A.抑制組胺釋放B.增強支氣管纖毛運動C.舒張支氣管平滑肌D.促進肺泡巨噬細胞吞噬【參考答案】C【詳細解析】沙丁胺醇等β?受體激動劑通過激活支氣管平滑肌細胞β?受體，激活第二信使系統(tǒng)（cAMP），導致肌動蛋白磷酸化而舒張支氣管。動物實驗證實β?激動劑可顯著降低氣道阻力（FEV1提升20-30%）。選項C為藥理學核心考點?！绢}干4】離體心臟灌流實驗中，冠脈結扎后心室肌細胞動作電位變化最顯著的特征是？A.0期去極化幅度升高B.1期快速去極化消失C.4期自動節(jié)律性增強D.APD時程延長【參考答案】D【詳細解析】離體灌流模型顯示：冠脈結扎后心肌細胞APD延長伴隨內向整流鉀電流（Ito）減少和延遲整流鉀電流（Ikr）增強，電生理記錄儀可清晰觀測到APD延長超過正常2-3倍。選項D為心血管功能實驗典型表現(xiàn)?！绢}干5】平原地區(qū)人進入高原后，呼吸系統(tǒng)調節(jié)的適應性變化不包括？A.潮氣量增加B.呼吸頻率降低C.血氧飽和度下降D.肺泡通氣量增加【參考答案】B【詳細解析】高原低氧刺激外周化學感受器（頸動脈體），通過增加呼吸頻率（可達靜息的3倍）和深度來提升肺泡通氣量（潮氣量×呼吸頻率）。血氧飽和度下降是必然結果。選項B與實際情況矛盾，為干擾項?！绢}干6】家兔在常壓氧環(huán)境（100%O?）暴露后，呼吸抑制最明顯的時期是？A.10分鐘內B.30分鐘-2小時C.2-4小時D.持續(xù)暴露【參考答案】B【詳細解析】動物實驗表明：暴露于高濃度氧后，呼吸抑制在30分鐘內開始顯現(xiàn)（PaCO?升高15-20mmHg），2-4小時達到峰值（呼吸頻率下降50%），可能與氧中毒導致肺血管收縮和呼吸中樞抑制有關。選項B為最佳答案?！绢}干7】腎交感神經(jīng)興奮時，腎素釋放的主要調節(jié)機制是？A.腎小球旁細胞牽張感受器B.腎髓質血流量減少C.ATP敏感鉀通道開放D.腎小球濾過率升高【參考答案】C【詳細解析】腎交感神經(jīng)末梢釋放去甲腎上腺素激活腎小球旁細胞α?受體，通過磷脂酰肌醇途徑（PLC）→IP3→肌漿網(wǎng)Ca2?釋放。ATP敏感鉀通道開放與抑制腎素釋放相關，而非激活因素。選項C符合信號通路特點。【題干8】實驗性高鉀血癥導致心律失常的主要離子機制是？A.細胞外K?濃度<3.5mmol/LB.細胞內K?濃度>140mmol/LC.靜息膜電位絕對值增大D.動作電位0期去極化超?！緟⒖即鸢浮緽【詳細解析】細胞內K?濃度>140mmol/L（如嚴重酸中毒時）導致靜息膜電位（-70mV→-55mV）絕對值減小，鈉通道失活減少，自律細胞易產(chǎn)生4期自動去極化。動物實驗顯示細胞內高鉀導致室性心動過速發(fā)生率>80%。選項B為電生理病理學重點。【題干9】離體腸道平滑肌實驗中，乙酰膽堿引起收縮反應的受體類型是？A.毒蕈堿型受體M3B.煙堿型受體N3C.腎上腺素β?受體D.組胺H?受體【參考答案】B【詳細解析】M3受體在腸道平滑肌表達量最高（密度約2000sites/mm2），ACh與之結合激活Gqα→PLC→IP3→Ca2?內流引發(fā)收縮。離體腸管實驗證實M3受體阻斷劑阿托品可逆轉ACh收縮效應。選項B為藥理學經(jīng)典題型?！绢}干10】實驗性腦水腫最常采用的開環(huán)模型是？A.液壓被動型B.通透性主動型C.靜水壓被動型D.血腦屏障主動型【參考答案】C【詳細解析】靜水壓被動型（如Pao≤30mmHg）通過破壞血腦屏障（BBB）通透性（BBB指數(shù)>1.5）導致細胞外水增多，符合臨床顱腦損傷病理特征。選項C實驗操作簡便，重復性好，見于70%以上研究論文。【題干11】離體肝灌流實驗中，阻斷門靜脈后的首個性狀變化是？A.肝細胞線粒體膜電位下降B.膽汁酸分泌量減少C.乳酸生成速率降低D.肝竇枯否細胞增生【參考答案】A【詳細解析】門靜脈阻斷導致肝竇內壓升高（>30cmH2O），線粒體膜電位（ΔΨ≈150mV）在5分鐘內下降50%。電化學檢測顯示ATP含量在30分鐘內減少70%。選項A為肝功能實驗關鍵指標?！绢}干12】實驗性心肌缺血再灌注損傷的核心機制是？A.氧自由基大量生成B.鈣超載C.線粒體膜通透性轉換孔開放D.中性粒細胞浸潤【參考答案】C【詳細解析】離體心臟再灌注實驗顯示：缺血30分鐘后線粒體膜電位（ΔΨ）從-180mV升至-130mV，MPTP開放導致細胞內Ca2?濃度達500μM（正常<100μM），引發(fā)凋亡小體形成。選項C為病理生理學核心機制?！绢}干13】離體腎小球濾過實驗中，改變腎小球毛細血管內壓（PGi）對GFR的影響呈？A.直線正相關B.二次函數(shù)關系C.對數(shù)曲線關系D.指數(shù)曲線關系【參考答案】B【詳細解析】GFR=Kf×S（Kf腎小球濾過系數(shù)，S腎小球毛細血管內壓-腎小囊內壓差）。動物實驗顯示：當PGi從80mmHg升至180mmHg時，GFR曲線呈拋物線上升，轉折點在180mmHg（受a?受體調節(jié)）。選項B為流體動力學經(jīng)典關系式?！绢}干14】實驗性動脈粥樣硬化斑塊形成的關鍵細胞類型是？A.內皮祖細胞B.平滑肌細胞C.巨噬細胞泡沫化D.脂肪細胞分化【參考答案】C【詳細解析】病理切片顯示：斑塊內泡沫細胞（Foamcell）密度與LDL氧化修飾程度呈正相關（r=0.82）。油紅O染色證實泡沫細胞脂滴含量是正常巨噬細胞的5倍。選項C為動脈硬化病理學核心特征?！绢}干15】離體骨骼肌實驗中，T型鈣通道開放引起動作電位的是？A.快肌纖維B.慢肌纖維C.混合肌纖維D.神經(jīng)肌肉接頭【參考答案】A【詳細解析】快肌纖維（II型）T型鈣通道開放時間（-80mV→-60mV）比慢肌纖維（I型）早200ms，動作電位上升支斜率快3倍。雙極電位記錄顯示：快肌纖維動作電位閾值（-55mV）低于慢肌纖維（-50mV）。選項A符合電生理學特性。【題干16】實驗性肝性腦病最敏感的生化標志物是？A.血氨濃度B.腦脊液氨濃度C.血漿前白蛋白D.凝血酶原時間【參考答案】A【詳細解析】血氨濃度在肝衰竭早期（Child-PughC級）即升高至>35μmol/L，腦脊液氨濃度滯后2-4小時。動物實驗顯示：血氨>80μmol/L時，腦電圖出現(xiàn)θ波異常。選項A為診斷金標準?！绢}干17】離體肺灌流實驗中，肺血管阻力（PVR）升高的主要機制是？A.肺泡表面活性物質減少B.內皮素-1釋放C.一氧化氮合成增加D.白三烯E升高【參考答案】B【詳細解析】肺動脈內皮損傷后，ET-1濃度在30分鐘內升高5倍（正常<10pg/ml），PVR從2W/(ml·s)增至8W/(ml·s)。電子顯微鏡顯示：肺動脈內皮細胞間連接蛋白（VE-cadherin）表達下降60%。選項B為內皮損傷核心機制?！绢}干18】實驗性腎性貧血最有效的治療手段是？A.重組人促紅細胞生成素B.鐵劑治療C.維生素B12注射D.碳酸氫鈉堿化【參考答案】A【詳細解析】腎性貧血患者EPO水平<2mU/ml，重組人EPO治療可使Hb從70g/L提升至120g/L（P<0.01）。動物實驗顯示：EPO治療10天后腎血管密度增加30%。選項A為國際指南推薦方案?！绢}干19】離體腦灌流實驗中，腦血流量（CBF）降低最顯著的病理狀態(tài)是？A.低氧血癥B.高碳酸血癥C.低血糖D.血壓正?！緟⒖即鸢浮緽【詳細解析】CO?分壓從40mmHg升至60mmHg時，CBF下降50%（正常CBF=50ml/100g·min）。腦灌注壓（CPP）=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP=CPP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