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New

sprut

DiversifyingAgriculture

onKiribati’sOuterIslands

WORLDBANKGROUP

September2024

?2024TheWorldBank

1818HStreetNW,WashingtonDC20433

Telephone:202-473-1000;Internet:

Somerightsreserved

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Attribution—Pleasecitetheworkasfollows:“TheWorldBank.2024.CrackingtheNut:AProposalforReformingandUpgradingKiribati’sCoconutIndustry?WorldBank.”

Allqueriesonrightsandlicenses,includingsubsidiaryrights,shouldbeaddressedtoWorldBankPublications,TheWorldBankGroup,1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433,USA;fax:202-522-2625;e-mail:pubrights@.

Coverphoto:WorldBank

Acknowledgments

ThisreportwaspreparedbyAgnèsDeshormes(Consultant)andSamuelWills(Economist,TaskTeamLeader).ThereportbenefittedfromguidanceanddirectionfromStevenNdegwa(CountryDirector),StefanoMocci(CountryManager),andLarsChristianMoller(PracticeManager).TheauthorsareverygratefulforsuggestionsfrompeerreviewersAlikaDibyantaViartiTuwo(AgricultureEconomist),MehwishAshraf(SeniorEconomist),andVaninaForget(SeniorAgriculturalEconomist).ThereportalsobenefittedfromdiscussionsandinputsfromAnimeshShrivastava(LeadAgricultureEconomist)andMeetaSehgal(SeniorAgricultureSpecialist).

TableofContents

Abbreviations 5

Kiribati:GeographicFactsheet 6

Backgroundoftheengagement 7

Whatisthecontextofthisreport? 7

Whatarethemainconclusionsofthecompanionreports? 7

Whatdoesthisreportaimtodo? 8

Whoisthisreportaimedatinforming? 8

ExecutiveSummary 9

1.Thecontext:Agricultureplaysavitalroleintheeconomy

butthefocusoncopraleadstoweakgrowth,poornutrition

andgenderinequality 12

1.1Despiteurbanmigrationanddecliningengagement,manyhouseholds

remaininvolvedincoprafarmingwhichweighsongrowth 12

1.2Dietarypreferences,importedfoodsandanundersupplyoffresh

producecontributetofoodinsecurity,malnutritionandwidespread

Non-CommunicableDiseases 18

1.3Womenarepredominantlyresponsiblefordomestictasks,facing

heavyworkloadsandpervasivegender-basedviolence 20

2.Thechallenge:Heavydistortions,difficultgrowingconditions,

lackofinputs,andweaksupplychainsdiscouragefarmersfrom

supplyingthemarketdespitehighdemand 22

2.1Generousgovernmentsubsidiesencouragefarmerstofocus

oncopraproduction 22

2.2Othercropproductionisalsohamperedbychallenging

agro-ecologicalconditionsandpooraccesstofactorsofproduction 23

aTheagro-ecologicalenvironmentisharshandhighlyvulnerable

toclimatechange 23

bThecoprasubsidycreatesaheavyfiscalburden 24

cAccesstoinputsandotherproductionsupportservicesislow 24

2.3Foodsupplychainsareunderdevelopedduetolimitedfarmerlinkages,

insufficientstorage,expensiveshipping,andlackoffinancing 25

aLimitedverticalandhorizontallinkagesrestrictfarmers’access

tourbanmarkets 25

bLackofstorageandpoorhandlinggeneratehigh

post-harvestlosses 26

cShippingisirregularandcostly 26

dFinancialinclusionislimited,especiallyintheOuterIslands 27

2.4ThereisahighdemandforlocalfreshproduceinSouthTarawa

butmarketlinkagesareweak 30

2

3.Thegoal:DiversifyagricultureintheOuterIslandstoimprove

economicopportunities,foodandnutritionsecurity,gender

equity,andresiliencetoshocks 33

4.Thepath:Toachievediversification,Kiribaticouldreducethecopra

subsidy,strengthenagriculturesupportservicesandaccesstoinputs,

improvefoodsupplychainsandconsolidatemarketdemand 35

4.1Reducethecoprasubsidytostimulatefoodproduction 35

4.2Strengthenagriculturesupportservices 36

aAdoptproventechnologiestosustainablyincreaseproductivity 36

bFacilitateaccesstoinputsandproductiveassets 48

cAddresslimitationsinlandavailability 40

dStrengthenthecapacitiesandroleofAgricultureAssistants 41

4.3Enhancetheefficiencyoffoodsupplychains 42

aImproveaccesstomarketinformation 42

bPromotehorizontalandverticallinkageswithinthe

foodsupplychain 42

cImprovepost-harvestmanagement 44

dEnhanceinter-islandconnectivity 45

eFacilitateaccesstofinancing 46

4.4StimulatedemandforfreshproducefromtheOuterIslands 47

aImprovetheaffordabilityoffreshfood 47

bDiversifymarketsforlocalfoods 47

cRaiseawarenessofhealthydiets 48

4.5Developalternativeexportindustries,includingseaweed,

solarsalt,andtourism 48

5.Implementingpolicydirections 50

5.1Strengthensectorknowledgetoguidepolicymakingand

tomonitorpolicyperformance 50

5.2Aroadmapforagriculturediversificationandcommercialization 51

5.3Adaptinterventionstoeachisland 52

Annex1:Summarylistofrecommendationsforresponsibleauthorities 56

Annex2-Bibliography 60

3

ListofBoxes

Box1Nutritiousleafyvegetablestoimprovenutritionsecurity 36

Box2Localmethodsofcompostingprovideplantnutrients,andbufferagainst

drought,salinityandhighsoilacidity 37

Box3Farmers’organizationsinKiribati 43

Box4ProductivepartnershipsinPapuaNewGuinea 44

ListofFigures

Figure1:Percentageoftotalnumberofhouseholdsgrowingcrops

ininhabitedOuterIslands 13

Figure2:Percentageoftotalnumberofhouseholdsraisinglivestock

ininhabitedOuterIslands 13

Figure3:Percentageofruralcroppinghouseholdsbymaintypesofcrops 14

Figure4:CopraSubsidyCostandCoconut-RelatedExports 14

Figure5:Numberandchangeinurbanandruralhouseholdsgrowing

maincropsbycroptypeandstrata2015-2020 15

Figure6:Numberandchangeinurbanandruralhouseholdsraising

livestockbylivestocktypeandstrata2015-2020 16

Figure7:Ruralfarminghouseholdsgrowingcropsbypurpose 17

Figure8:Ruralfarminghouseholdsraisinglivestockbypurpose 17

Figure9:Valueoffoodimports2012-2021 18

Figure10:Regionaldistributionoffoodsecureandfoodinsecurehouseholds 19

Figure11:Costof1000kcalandshareoftheaveragedietary

energyconsumption 20

Figure12:Household’saccestoabankaccountbygeographicallocation 28

Figure13:NumberofoutstandingRuralSupportLoansandvalue

inJanuary2024 29

Figure14:InternationalremittancesaspercentofGDP 29

Figure15:Percentageofhouseholdsreceivinginternationaland

nationalremittances 30

Figure16:Abaiangvegetablevaluechainmap 32

Figure17:Kiribatipopulationprojectionswithandwithoutmigration 34

Figure18:Kiribatiseaweedexports,1999-2010 49

Figure19:MarkethubsinKiribati 53

Figure20:Populationsizebyisland 54

4

Abbreviations

ACIARAustralianCenterforInternationalAgriculturalResearch

ADBAsianDevelopmentBank

ALDAgricultureandLivestockDepartment

CNOCrudeCoconutOil

CTATechnicalCentreforAgricultureandRuralCooperation

DBKDevelopmentBankofKiribati

DFATDepartmentofForeignAffairsandTrade

FAOFoodandAgricultureOrganization

GEFGlobalEnvironmentFund

GoKGovernmentofKiribati

IBRDInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopmentIDAInternationalDevelopmentAssociation

IFADInternationalFundforAgricultureDevelopment

IFCInternationalFinanceCorporation

IMFInternationalMonetaryFund

KCCIKiribatiChamberofCommerceandIndustry

KCDLKiribatiCoconutDevelopmentLimited

KNSOKiribatiNationalStatisticsOffice

KSSLKiribatiShippingServicesLtd

MELADMinistryofEnvironment,LandandAgriculture

Development

NCDNon-CommunicableDisease

PASAProgrammaticAdvisoryServiceandAnalytics

PNGPapuaNewGuinea

SPCSouthPacificCommission

UNCDFUnitedNationsCapitalDevelopmentFund

UNCTADUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment

UNDPUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

5

Kiribati:GeographicFactsheet

50

45

40

Landarea(km2)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

P:70,090

L:31.9km

IslandsofKiribatiP:7,369

ClosertoTarawa

L:384.4km

10000

Kiritimati

Closerto

9000

Population

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

-

*Banaba(OceanIsland)

Butaritari(Makin)

Abaiang

Kuria

Makin

Maiana

Tarawa(N/S)

Marakei

Aranuka

Abemama

Nonouti

Tabiteuea(N/S)

Onotoa

Tamana

Beru

Nikunau

Arorae

Nikumaroro(GardnerIsland)

McKeanIsland

Orona(HullIsland)

CantonIsland

BirnieIsland

ManraIsland(SydneyIsland)

EnderburyIsland

RawakiIsland(PhoenixIsland)

Teraina(WashingtonIsland)

Tabuaeran(FanningIsland)

Kiritimati(ChristmasIsland)

StarbuckIsland

MaldenIsland

VostokIsland

FlintIsland

MilleniumIsland(CarolineIsland)

PhoenixIslands

LineIslands

GilbertIslands&Others*

Landarea(km2)Population(2020)

6

BackgroundoftheEngagement

Whatisthecontextofthisreport?

ThisreportispartofaProgrammaticAdvisoryServiceandAnalytics(PASA)thataimstoanalyzeoptionsforbuildingeconomicopportunitiesinKiribati’sOuterIslands.Overthepast50yearsKiribatihasseenasteadymigrationfromtheOuterIslandstothecapital,SouthTarawa.Thishasledtoovercrowdinginthecapitalandadeclineintraditionaldiets,replacedbycheapimportedfoods.Tocounterthistrend,thegovernmenthassubsidizedcopra,theprimaryagriculturalproductofKiribati,sincethemid-1990s.Thesubsidyhasbeenpopularandprovidescashemployment.However,thesubsidyhasincreasedsignificantlyinrecentyears.ItisnowaheavyburdenontheGovernment’sbudgetandhasledtoeconomiclosses,over-concentrationincoprafarming,andpooraccesstofreshproduce.TheobjectivesofthisPASAarethereforetoanalyzetheimpactofthecoprasubsidyonKiribati’shealth,socialprotection,agriculturalproductionandfiscalposition,andtorecommendpolicyactionstoimproveeachoftheseareas,andbuildeconomicopportunitiesonKiribati’souterislands.

ThePASAisstructuredaroundthreecomplementarystudies.Thefirststudy(CrackingtheNut:AProposalforReformingandUpgradingKiribati’sCoconutIndustry)focusesonthedistortionsgeneratedbythesubsidyonthecoprasector,andinvestigateshowtoimproveitsefficiencyandprofitability.Thesecondstudy(CultivatingSharedProsperity:ReformingtheCopraSubsidytoImproveSocialProtectiononKiribati’sOuterIslands)centersonthecoprasubsidyasaformofsocialprotection,andexploresalternativeschemestoreducepoverty.Thisreport(NewSprouts:DiversifyingAgricultureonKiribati’sOuterIslands)isthethirdofthetrilogyandexploresoptionsfordiversifyingthecopramonoculturetowardsfoodproductionmeetinglocalmarketdemand.

Whatarethemainconclusionsofthecompanionreports?

Thestudyonreformingthecopraindustryfoundthatcontinuousgovernmentsupportiscostlyandsustainsinefficiencies,recommendingagradualreductionofthesubsidywithaccompanyingmeasures.Thecoconutindustryisfocusedoncopra(driedcoconut)madebyhouseholdsandcrudecoconutoil(CNO)producedbyagovernment-ownedcompanyforexport.Continuousandincreasinggovernmentsupportdrainsthestatebudget,sustainsaninefficientindustry,andincurssignificantopportunitycosts.Instead,thegovernmentcouldconsidergraduallyreducingthecoprasubsidywhilephasinginalternativeandmoreefficientsocialprotectionprograms,increasingeconomicefficiencyandpossiblyattractnewentrantstargetingabroaderrangeofmarketsegments.Thiswouldrequirecomplementarymeasurestoaddresskeystonemarketandgovernancefailuresandfacilitatenewinvestment.

Thestudyonreformingthecoprasubsidytoimprovesocialprotectionfoundthatboththepovertyrateandpublicexpenditurecouldbereducedbycombiningareducedcoprasubsidywithtargetedcashtransfers.ThecoprasubsidyservesasasocialsafetynetbyredistributingfishingrentstotheOuterIslands.Althoughittargetsthepoor,itlacksefficiencybecauseitreachessomewealthierhouseholds,whileexcludingsomepoorhouseholdsaltogether.Thegradualreductionofthecoprasubsidycombinedwithtargetedcashtransferswouldbringdownthepovertyrateatalessercost.Thiscouldbeachievedbycappingthesubsidyatthepovertylineandintroducingcashtransfersforpoorhouseholds.

7

Whatdoesthisreportaimtodo?

ThereportassessesKiribati’sagriculturalsectorandexploreshowenhancedfoodsystemscouldprovidealternativeeconomicopportunitiesbeyondcopraproductionintheOuterIslands.ThestudyreviewsthebroadchallengesaffectingtheagriculturesectorinKiribati.Inparticular,itstudieshowlimitedfoodproduction,inorganizedsupplychains,anddistortionsfromthecoprasubsidycontributetofoodinsecurity,malnutritionandwidespreadnon-communicablediseases.ItproposesastrategicframeworkforimprovinglocalfoodsupplychainssotheycangenerateincomeforOuterIslandsfarminghouseholdsandenhancefoodsecurityandnutrition.Thestudybuildsontheresearchconductedbythecompanionstudiesandadvocatesthereductionofthecoprasubsidyandthereallocationofpartofthesavingstotheagriculturesector.ItfurtherdelineatesasetofincentivesandpolicymeasuresdesignedtoexpandeconomicopportunitiesintheOuterIslandsthroughenhancedfoodproductionandmarketing.

Thestudyisarapid,primarilyqualitativereviewintendedtosupportpolicydialogueonpotentialreformsfortransformingfoodsystems.Preparedwithinashorttimeframe,itisbasedlargelyondeskresearch,supplementedbyafewinterviewswithkeystakeholders.Duetothelimitedavailabilityofstatisticsontheagriculturesector,theanalysisfocusesmainlyonavailablemicro-economicdata.Furtherin-depthcontributions,suchasfeasibilityanalysescoveringtechnical,financial,political,andadministrativeaspectsofproposedreforms,ormacroeconomicimpactassessmentmodelling,couldbeconductedasthenextstep.

Whoisthisreportaimedatinforming?

Thereportisintendedforusebybothexternalandinternalstakeholders.ThedirectclientsforthisworkaretheMinistryofEnvironment,LandandAgriculture(MELAD)andotherministriesandagenciesnotedinthereportthatcouldcontributetodevelopingreformsaimedatimprovingfoodsystems.AsecondaryaudienceisthemanagementoftheWorldBankGrouporganizations,includingIBRD/IDAandIFC,asthereportalsoaimsatinformingthedesignoftechnicalassistanceandinvestmentprogramstheycouldoffer.Finally,thisstudymayhelpalignothermulti-lateralordonoragenciesthatwishtocontributetoeconomicandsocialdevelopmenteffortsinKiribati.

8

ExecutiveSummary

1.Despiteurbanmigrationanddecliningengagement,mosthouseholdsonKiribati’sOuterIslandsremaininvolvedinagriculture.Thelackofemploymentopportunities,vulnerabilitytoclimatechangeandremotenessresultincontinuedurbanmigration.However,mostofthecountry’s20,350householdsstillmaintainsomeactivityintheprimarysector.Whilethemajorityofruralfarminghouseholdscultivatecoconuttrees,thenumberofruralhouseholdsengagedincropproductionisdeclining,withthenotableexceptionofvegetableproduction.IntheOuterIslands,farminghouseholdsfocusonsubsistenceproductionforfamilyconsumption,andonlyaquarterofthemgrowsomecropsforthemarket.

2.Changingdietarypreferences,importedfoodsandinsufficientandcostlyfreshproduce,contributetofoodinsecurity,malnutritionandwidespreadNon-CommunicableDiseases.Traditionaldietshaveshiftedtowardsimportedstaplefoodslikerice,wheat,andsugar,alongwithprocessedfoods,whicharecheaperandeasiertoprepareandstoreinfamilykitchens.Consumers’preferenceformoreaffordable,non-traditionalfoods,alongwithlimitedlocalproduction,hasresultedindietshighinsugarandfat,andlowinnutritionalvalue.Moreover,withlimitedanddecliningfoodproductionKiribatiisincreasinglydependentonimportedfoods,whicharemostlysoldonthecapital’smarkets.Inadditiontoincreasingglobalfoodprices,thishascontributedtofoodinsecurityformorethanonethirdofKiribati’spopulation.Theshifttowardslessdiverseandnutritiousdietsalsoresultsinundernourishedchildren,overweightadultsandwidespreadNon-CommunicableDiseases.

3.Agenerouscoprasubsidyprovidesamajorincentivetoconcentrateoncopraproduction.

Thepricesubsidyaimstosustaincopraproductionforexport,ensureasupplyofcashintheOuterIslandsandreducemigration.However,ithasalsoledfamiliestoprioritizecopraproductiontothedetrimentoffoodcropsandlivestock.Thecoprasubsidymayhavealsocontributedtolimitedgovernmentinvestmentinthenon-copraagriculturesector,hinderingeffortstoimprovetheproductionandcommercializationoffoodcrops.

4.Alternativecropproductionisalsohinderedbychallengingagro-ecologicalconditionsandinsufficientaccesstofactorsofproduction.Soilfertilityislowandfreshwaterresourcesarelimited.Furthermore,withitsatollslyingonlyafewmetersabovetheocean,Kiribatiisparticularlyvulnerabletorisingsealevels,stormsurgesandextremetidesassociatedwithclimatechange.Inturn,therisingsealevelaggravatesthescarcityofusablelandforbothhumanhabitationandfarming.Theexpansionoffoodcroppingisalsoconstrainedbylimitedlandavailabilityandcomplexlandtenuresystems.99percentofthelandiseitherownedbygovernmentorundercustomarytenure,therearelengthyregistrationprocesses,andfrequentdisputesovercustomaryleases.Accesstoplantingmaterialislimitedandtheimportofagriculturalinputsishinderedbylimitedregionaltransportandinadequatecapacitiestoensurebiosecurity.Finally,farmers’accesstoagriculturetechnologiesandinformationishamperedbythelimitedoutreachofpublicextension.

5.ThereisahighdemandforlocalfreshproduceinSouthTarawa,butitisnotbeingmetbysuppliers.ObservationspointtoasignificantdemandforlocalfreshproduceinSouthTarawa.Acomprehensivemarketassessmentisneededtodevelopastrategyforfoodproductionandcommercialization.TopofFormMostfreshproduceissoldatroadsidestallsandlocalmarkets.Whileformalmarketsoffergoodmarketingopportunities,entrybarrierstofarmersarehigh.Whilefarmerscomplainaboutlowprices,endmarketpricesinSouthTarawaareveryhigh.Ultimately,itisthefragilityandlackoforganizationofthewholefreshproducesupplychainthattranslateintothehighpricesseeninSouthTarawa.TheSchoolLunchProgramoffersinterestingprospectsfordevelopingnew,intra-islandmarketingchannelsforOuterIslandsproduce.

9

10

6.Thedevelopmentoffoodsupplychainsishamperedbylimitedfarmerlinkages,absentstorage,expensiveshipping,andlackoffinancing.DespitearobustdemandinSouthTarawaforfreshproducesourcedfromtheOuterIslands,farmerslackcriticalinformationonmarketopportunities.Middlemenserveastheprimaryconduitforconnectingruralproducerstourbanmarkets.Theyareoftenheldresponsibleforpressuringfarmersintoacceptinglowpricesatthefarmgate,whichdiscouragesfarmersfromsellingfoodcrops.Lackofstorageandpoorhandlinggeneratehighpost-harvestlossesateverystageofthesupplychain.ThiscontributestopoorqualityandhighpricesontheSouthTarawamarkets,wherelocalfreshproductsremainunaffordableformanyresidents.Shippingservicesareirregular,withsmallvolumesandlongdistancestranslatingintohightransportcosts.Theseareonlypartiallyoffsetbyagovernmentfreightsubsidy,whichisdifficulttoaccess.Lessthan15percentofthepopulationisfinanciallyincluded.Intheprimarysector,accesstocommercialloansishamperedbylimitedaccesstobankingservices,insufficientcollateral,andlackoffinancialliteracy.

7.Whilechallengesarewellknownandstrategicdirectionsareclear,resultshavebeendisappointing.Despitewidespreadconsensusonthemostcriticalchallengesandgeneralstrategiesforfosteringagriculturalproduction,progressindiversifyingtheagriculturesectorhasbeenlimited.Rapidpopulationgrowthcontinuestoraisedemandforfood,exacerbatingexistingchallengesinlocalfoodproductionandfurtheramplifyingrelianceonfoodimports.Incentivesforfarmersandtradershavebeeninsufficienttoshiftfromsubsistencetomarket-drivenagriculture.Meanwhile,thecoprasubsidyhasactedasadisincentive,discouragingfarminghouseholdsfromdiversifyingtowardscultivatingfoodcropsfordomesticconsumption.

8.Toachievediversification,thefirstprioritieswouldbetoreducethecoprasubsidyandtransformfoodproductionandmarketing.Reducingthecoprasubsidywouldcreateanenvironmentthatencouragesfoodcropsthatareindemandondomesticmarkets.Giventhecentralroleofcopraasaprimarysourceofcashincome,alowersubsidymustbecoupledwithmeasuresthatpreventadditionalhardshipforfarmingfamilies.Inadditiontointroducingcashtransfersforthepoor,thiswouldincludemeasuresaimedatboostingcropproductionforthedomesticmarket.Thisincludesstrengtheningagriculturesupportservices,enhancingtheefficiencyoffoodsupplychainsandconsolidatingmarketdemand.Theseeffortscouldbefundedbythefiscalsavingsfromloweringthecoprasubsidy.

9.Transitioningtowardsmarket-orientedproductionrequiresscalingupadaptedtechnologies.Proven,low-costtechnicalsolutionsforcultivatingfoodcropsinKiribati’sharshagroecologicalenvironmenthavebeensuccessfullydeveloped,includinginrecentworkbyACIAR(2020).Theseshouldbewidelydisseminatedalongsidenutritioneducation.Scalingupwillalsorequireexpandingtheaccesstoclimate-adaptedseedlingsbyencouragingprivatesectornurseries,andincreasingenclosedpigsandpoultryproductiontosupplyanimalmanureforcomposting.Farmers’accesstoimportedinputsshouldalsobeimproved.Additionally,publicextensionistsshouldreceiveadditionaltrainingsothattheycanpromotenewtechnologies,advisefarmersonaccessingmarkets,andimprovethereachandrelevanceoftheiractivities.Commercialentities,farmers’organizations,NGOsanddevelopmentprojectswillbeimportantpartnersinthistraining.ADoNoHarmapproachwillberequiredtoensurethatwomen’sparticipationdoesnotexacerbategenderdisparitiesorgender-basedviolence,increasingworkloadorcreatingotherchallenges.

10.Addressingtheconstraintoflimitedlandavailabilityforfoodcroppingwillbecriticaltoscalingupproduction.Thiswillrequirestreamliningleasingproceduresforbothpublicandcustomaryland,andprotectingpartiesinleasingagreementsoncustomaryland.Maximizingtheproductivityofcurrentfarmlandthroughinter-croppingwithcoconuttreeswouldalsoallowfarmexpansion.

11.AFoodSupplyChainAssessmentwouldbebeneficial.TheassessmentwouldguidetheAgricultureandLivestockDepartment(ALD)inprovidingsupporttodevelopmarketlinkages.ItshouldfocusonanalyzingmarketdemandforOuterIslandcrops,profilingmiddlemenandfarmers’organizations,examininghowpricesareformedinthesupplychain,andassessingthepotentialforfoodprocessingdevelopment.Assessmentoutcomesshouldbewidelydisseminated,includingthroughaFoodConsultationgatheringfoodactorsandrelevantministriestoagreeonpriorityareasofsupport.

12.Verticalandhorizontallinkagesbetweenvaluechainplayerscouldbestrengthened.Middlemenwouldbenefitfromtrainingtoimprovehowsupplychainsaremanaged,whichwouldliftproductqualityandsafety.Empoweringmiddlementoprovidefarmerstechnicalassistanceandfairpaywouldmakefoodsupplymorereliable.Alternativeorcomplementarychannelstomiddlemencouldalsobedeveloped,suchasfarmers’organizations,andcollaborativearrangementslinkingproducersandbuyerssuchascontractfarmingorproductivepartnerships.

13.Tofurtherenhancetheefficiencyoffoodsupplychains,post-harvestmanagement,transportandaccesstofinancewillneedtobeimproved.Reducingpost-harvestlossesiscrucialtoincreasingsupplyandloweringprices.Farmers,middlemenandshipperswouldbenefitfromtrainingonhowtohandleproduce.Thiscouldbecomplementedbypublicinvestmentinports,suitablestorage,andaregulatoryframeworkforfoodsafety.Introducingacompetitive,performance-basedfranchiseshippingmodelwouldimprovetransportservicesofferedbytheprimaryshi