20232023年西南民族大學(xué)博士爭論生入學(xué)考試英語真題及參考答案102023年西南民族大學(xué)博士爭論生入學(xué)考試英語真題及參考答案SinceWouldWarIIconsiderableadvanceshavebeenmadeintheareaofhealth-careservices.Theseincludebetteraccesstohealthcare(particularlyforthepoorminorities),improvementsinphysicalplants,andincreasednumbersofphysiciansandotherhealthpersonnel.Allhaveplayedapartintherecentimprovementifeexpectanc.Butthereismountingcriticismofthelargeremaininggapsinaccess,unbridledcostinflation,thefurtherfragmentationofservice,excessiveindulgenceinwastefulhigh-technology“gadgeteering,”andabreakdownindoctor-patientrelationships.Inrecentyearsproposedpanaceasandnewprograms,smallandlarge,haveproliferatedatafeverishpaceanddisappointmentsmultiplyatalmostthesamerate.Thishasledtoanincreasedpessimis—everythinghastriedandnothingworks”—whichsometimesbordersoncynicismorevennihilism.Itistruethattheautomatic“passthrough”ofrapidlyspiralingcoststogovernmentandinsurancecarriers,whichwassetinapublicizedenvironmentof“therichestnationintheworld,”producedforatimeasenseofunlimitedresourcesandallowedtodevelopamoodwherebyeverypractitionerandinstitutioncould“dohisownthing”withoutundueconcernforthe“MedicalCommons.”Thepracticeoffull-costreimbursementencouragedcapitalinvestmentandnowtheindustryisovercapitalized.Manycitieshavehundredsofexcesshospitalbeds;hospitalshaveproliferatedasuperabundanceofhigh-technologyequipment;andstructuralostentationandluxuryweretheorderoftheday.Inanygivenday,one-fourthofallcommunitybedsarevacant;expensiveequipmentisunderusedor,worse,usedunnecessarily.Capitalinvestmentbringsrapidlyrisingoperatingcosts.Yet,inpart,thispessimismderivesfromexpectingtoomuchofhealthcare.Itmustberealizedthatcareis,formostpeople,apainfulexperience,oftenaccompaniedbyfearandunwelcomeresults.Althoughthereisvastroomforimprovement,healthcarewillalwaysretainsomeunpleasantnessandfrustration.Moreover,thecapacitiesofmedicalsciencearelimited.HumptyDumptycannotalwaysbeputbacktogetheragain.Toomanyphysiciansarereluctanttoadmittheirlimitationstopatients;toomanypatientsandfamiliesareunwillingtoacceptsuchrealities.Norisittruethateverythinghasbeentriedandnothingworks,asshownbytheprepaidgrouppracticeplansoftheKaiserFoundationandatPugetSound.Inthemain,however,suchundertakingshavebeendrownedbyaveritablefloodofpublicandprivatemoneyswhichhavesupportedandencouragedthecontinuationofconventionalpracticesandsubsidizedtheirshortcomingsonamassive,almostunrestrictedscale.Exceptforthemostidealisticanddedicated,therewerenoincentivestoseekchangeortopracticeself-restraintorfrugality.Inthisatmosphere,itisnotfairtocondemnasfailuresallattemptedexperiments;itmaybemoreaccuratetosaymanyneverhadafairtrial.TheauthorimpliesthattheKaiserFoundationandPugetSoundplans(lines47-48)differedfromotherplansbyencouragingcapitalinvestmentrequiringphysicianstotreatthepoorprovidingincentivesforcostcontrolandemployingonlydedicated idealisticdoctorsandrelyingprimarilyonpublicfundingTheauthormentionsallofthefollowingasconsequencesoffull-costreimbursementEXCEPTrisingoperatingcostsunderusedhospitalfacilitiesovercapitalizationoverrelianceonexpensiveequipmentlackofservicesforminoritiesThetoneofthepassagecanbestbedescribedaslight-heartedandamusedobjectivebutconcerneddetachedandunconcernedcautiousbutsincereenthusiasticandenlightenedAccordingtotheauthor,the“pessimism”mentionedatline35ispartlyattributabletothefactthattherehasbeenlittlerealimprovementinhealth-careservicesexpectationsabouthealth-careservicesaresometimesunrealisticlargesegmentsofthepopulationfinditimpossibletogetaccesstohealth-careservicesadvancesintechnologyhavemadehealthcareserviceunaffordabledoctorsarenowlessconcernedwithpatientcareTheauthorcitestheprepaidplansinlines46-48ascounterexamplestotheclaimthatnothinghasworkedexamplesofhealth-careplansthatwereover-fundedevidencethathealth-careservicesarefragmentedproofofthetheorythatnoplanhasbeensuccessfulexperimentsthatyieldeddisappointingresultsItcanbeinferredthatthesentence“HumptyDumptycannotalwaysbeputbacktogetheragain”meansthatthecostofhealth-careserviceswillnotdeclinesomepeopleshouldnotbecomedoctorsmedicalcareisnotreallyessentialtogoodhealthillnessisoftenunpleasantandevenpainfulmedicalsciencecannotcureeveryillWithwhichofthefollowingdescriptionsofthesystemforthedeliveryofhealth-careserviceswouldtheauthormostlikelyagree?Itisbiasedinfavorofdoctorsandagainstpatients.ItishighlyfragmentedandcompletelyineffectiveIthasnotembracednewtechnologyrapidlyenoughItisgenerallyeffectivebutcanbeimprovedItdiscouragespeoplefromseekingmedicalcareWhichofthefollowingbestdescribesthelogicalstructureoftheselection?Thethirdparagraphisintendedarefutationofthefirstandsecondparagraphs.Thesecondandthirdparagraphsexplainandputintoperspectivethepointsmadeinthefirstparagraph.Thesecondandthirdparagraphsexplainandputintoperspectivethepointsmadeinthefirstparagraph.Thefirstparagraphdescribesaproblem,andthesecondandthirdparagraphspresenttwohornsofadilemma.Thefirstparagraphdescribesaproblem,theseconditscauses,andthethirdapossiblesolution.Theauthor’sprimaryconcernistocriticizephysiciansandhealth-careadministratorsforinvestingintechnologicallyadvancedequipmentexaminesomeproblemsaffectingdeliveryofhealth-careservicesandassesstheirseveritydefendthemedicalcommunityfromchargesthathealth-carehasnotimprovedsinceWorldWarIIanalyzethereasonsforthehealth-careindustry’sinabilitytoprovidequalitycaretoallsegmentsofthepopulationdescribethepeculiareconomicfeaturesofthehealth-careindustrythatarethecausesofspiralingmedicalcostsPassage72(9/22)1.1.C2.E3.B4.B5.A6.6.E7.D8.C9.B10.Passage71(8/22)Behaviorisoneoftwogeneralresponsesavailabletoendothermic(warm-blooded)speciesfortheregulationofbodytemperature,theotherbeinginnate(reflexive)mechanismsofheatproductionandheatloss.Humanbeingsrelyprimarilyonthefirsttoprovideahospitablethermalmicroclimateforthemselves,inwhichthetransferofheatbetweenthebodyandtheenvironmentisaccomplishedwithminimalinvolvementofinnatemechanismsofheatproductionandloss.Thermoregulatorybehavioranticipateshyperthermia,andtheorganismadjustsitsbehaviortoavoidbecominghyperthermia:itremoveslayersofclothing,itgoesforacoolswim,etc.Theorganismcanalsorespondtochangesinthetemperatureofthebodycore,asisthecaseduringexercise;butsuchresponsesresultfromthedirectstimulationofthermoreceptorsdistributedwidelywithinthecentralnervoussystem,andtheabilityofthesemechanismstohelptheorganismadjusttogrosschangesinitsenvironmentislimited.Untilrecentlyitwasassumedthatorganismsrespondtomicrowaveradiationinthesamewaythattheyrespondtotemperaturechangescausedbyotherformsofradiation.Afterall,theargumentruns,microwavesareradiationandheatbodytissues.Thistheoryignoresthefactthatthestimulustoabehavioralresponseisnormallyatemperaturechangethatoccursatthesurfaceoftheorganism.Thethermoreceptorsthatpromptbehavioralchangesarelocatedwithinthefirstmillimeteroftheskin’ssurface,buttheenergyofamicrowavefieldmaybeselectivelydepositedindeeptissues,effectivelybypassingthesethermoreceptors,particularlyifthefieldisatnear-resonantfrequencies.Theresultingtemperatureprofilemaywellbeakindofreversethermalgradientinwhichthedeeptissuesarewarmedmorethanthoseofthesurface.Sincetheheatisnotconductedoutwardtothesurfacetstimulatetheappropriatereceptors,theorganismdoesnot“appreciate”thisstimulationinthesamewaythatit“appreciates”heatingandcoolingoftheskin.Intheory,theinternalorgansofahumanbeingorananimalcouldbequiteliterallycookedwell-donebeforetheanimalevenrealizesthatthebalanceofitsthermomicroclimatehasbeendisturbed.Untilafewyearsago,microwaveirradiationsatequivalentplane-wavepowerdensitiesofabout100mW/cm2wereconsideredunequivocallytoproduce“thermal”effects;irradiationswithintherangeof10to100mW/cm2mightormightnotproduce“thermal”effects;whileeffectsobservedatpowerdensitiesbelow10mW/cm2wereassumedtobe“nonthermal”innature.Experimentshaveshownthistobeanoversimplification,andarecentreportsuggeststhatfieldsasweakas1mW/cm2canbethermogenic.Whentheheatgeneratedinthetissuesbyanimposedradiofrequency(plustheheatgeneratedbymetabolism)exceedstheheat-losscapabilitiesoftheorganism,thethermoregulatorysystemhasbeencompromised.Yetsurprisingly,notlongago,anincreaseintheinternalbodytemperaturewasregardedmerelyas“evidence”ofathermaleffect.TheauthorisprimarilyconcernedwithshowingthatbehaviorisamoreeffectivewayofcontrollingbodilytemperaturethaninnatemechanismscriticizingresearcherswhowillnotdiscardtheirtheoriesabouttheeffectsofmicrowaveradiationonorganismsdemonstratingthateffectsofmicrowaveradiationaredifferentfromthoseofotherformsofradiationanalyzingthemechanismbywhichanorganismmaintainsitsbodilytemperatureinachangingthermalenvironmentdiscussingtheimportanceofthermoreceptorsinthecontroloftheinternaltemperatureofanorganismTheauthormakeswhichofthefollowingpointsaboutinnatemechanismsforheatproduction?Theyaregovernedbythermoreceptorsinsidethebodyoftheorganismratherthanatthesurface.Theyarealesseffectivemeansofcompensatingforgrosschangesintemperaturebehavioralstrategies.Theyarenotaffectedbymicrowaveradiation.(A)I(A)Ionly(B)IandIIonly(C)IandIIIonly(D)IIandIIIonly(E)I,II,andIIIWhichofthefollowingwouldbethemostlogicaltopicfortheauthortotakeupintheparagraphfollowingthefinalparagraphoftheselection?AsuggestionfornewresearchtobedoneontheeffectsofmicrowavesonanimalsandhumanbeingsAnanalysisofthedifferencesbetweenmicrowaveradiationAproposalthattheuseofmicrowaveradiationbeprohibitedbecauseitisdangerousAsurveyoftheliteratureontheeffectsofmicrowaveradiationonhumanbeingsAdiscussionofthestrategiesusedbyvariousspeciestocontrolhyperthermiaTheauthor’sstrategyinlines39-42istointroduceahypotheticalexampletodramatizeapointproposeanexperimenttotestascientifichypothesisciteacasestudytoillustrateageneralcontentionproduceacounterexampletodisproveanopponent’stheoryspeculateabouttheprobableconsequencesofascientificphenomenonTheauthorimpliesthattheproponentsofthetheorythatmicrowaveradiationactsonorganismsinthesamewayasotherformsofradiationbasedtheirconclusionsprimarilyonlaboratoryresearchunfoundedassumptioncontrolgroupsurveysdeductivereasoningcausalinvestigationThetoneofthepassagecanbestbedescribedasgenialandconversationalalarmedanddisparagingfacetiousandcynicalscholarlyandnoncommittalscholarlyandconcernedTheauthorisprimarilyconcernedwithpointingoutweaknessesinapopularscientifictheorydevelopingahypothesistoexplainascientificphenomenonreportingonnewresearchontheeffectsofmicrowaveradiationcriticizingtheresearchmethodsofearlierinvestigatorsclarifyingambiguitiesintheterminologyusedtodescribeaphenomenonPassage71(8/22)1.1.C2.B3.A4.A5.B6.E7.A8.9.10.Passage74(11/22)AgriculturalprogressprovidedthestimulusnecessarytosetoffeconomicexpansioninmedievalFrance.Aslongasthosewhoworkedthelandwerebarelyabletoensuretheirownsubsistenceandthatoftheirlandlords,allotheractivitieshadtobeminimal,butwhenfoodsurplusesincreased,itbecamepossibletoreleasemorepeopleforgovernmental,commercial,religiousandculturalpursuits.However,notallthefundsfromtheagriculturalsurpluswereactuallyavailableforcommercialinvestment.Muchofthesurplus,intheformoffoodincreases,probablywenttoraisethesubsistencelevel;anadditionalamount,intheformofcurrencygainedfromthesaleoffood,wentintotheroyaltreasurytobeusedinwagingwar.AlthoughLouisVIIofFranceleviedalesscrushingtaxburdenonhissubjectsthandidEngland’sHenryII,LouisVIIdidspendgreatsumsonanunsuccessfulcrusade,andhisvassals—bothlayandecclesiastic—tookoverspendingwheretheirsovereignstopped.SurplusfundswereclaimedbothbytheChurchandbyfeudallandholders,whereuponcathedralsandcastlesmushroomedthroughoutFrance.Thesimultaneousprogressofcathedralbuildingand,forinstance,vineyardexpansioninBordeauxillustratestheveryrealcompetitionforavailablecapitalbetweentheChurchandcommercialinterests;theformerproducedinestimablemoralandartisticriches,butthelatterhadastrongerimmediateimpactupongrossnationalproduct.Moreover,thoughallwarsbydefinitionaredefensive,thefrequentcrossingsofarmiesthatlivedoffthelandandimpartiallyburnedallthehutsandbarnsontheirpathconsumedconsiderableresources.Sincedemandsontheagriculturalsurpluswouldhavevariedfromyeartoyear,wecannotpreciselycalculatetheirimpactonthecommercialgrowthofmedievalFrance.Butwemustbearthatimpactinmindwhenestimatingtheassetsthatwerelikelytohavebeenavailableforinvestment.Nodoubtcastleandcathedralbuildingwasnottotallybarrenofprofit(forthebuilders,thatis),anditproducedintangibledividendsofmaterialandmoralsatisfactionforthecommunity.Evenwarshandedbackafragmentofwhattheytook,atleasttoafew.Still,wecannotplaceonthesameplaneaprimarilydestructiveactivityandaconstructiveone,norexpectthesameresultsfromanewbelltowerasfromanewwatermill.Aboveall,medievalFrancehadlittleroomforinvestmentoverandabovethepreservationoflife.Grantedthatwarcostmuchlessthanitdoestoday,thattheChurchrenderedallsortsofeducationalandrecreationalservicesthatwereunobtainableelsewhere,andthatgovernmentwasfarlessdemandingthanisthemodernstate—nevertheless,formedievalmenandwomen,supportingcommercialdevelopmentrequiredconsiderableeconomicsacrifice.Accordingtothepassage,agriculturalrevenuesinexcessoftheamountneededforsubsistencewereusedbymedievalkingstopatronizetheartssponsorpublicrecreationwagewarbuildcathedralsfundpubliceducationAccordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingwasanimportantsourceofrevenueinmedievalFrance?CheeseWineWool OliveoilVealThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingwouldhavereducedtheassetsimmediatelyavailableforcommercialinvestmentinmedievalFrance?RenovationofalargecathedralAsharpincreaseinthebirthrateAninvasionofFrancebyHenryIIIIIonlyIandIIonlyIandIIIonlyIIandIIIonlyI,II,andIIIItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatmorepeoplecouldentergovernmentandtheChurchinmedievalFrancebecausethenumberofindividuallandholdingsinheavilyagriculturalareaswasbeginningtoincreaseanincreaseinthevolumeofinternationaltradehadbroughtanincreaseinthepopulationofcitiesadecreaseinwarfarehadallowedthekingtodecreasethesizeofthearmyfoodproducerscouldgrowmorefoodthantheyandtheirfamiliesneededtosurvivelandlordswereprosperingandthusweredemandingasmallerpercentageoftenants’annualyieldsTheauthorimpliesthatthereasonwecannotexpectthesameresultsfromanewbelltowerfromanewwatermillisthatbelltowersyieldanintangibledividendbelltowersprovidematerialsatisfactionwatermillscostmoretobuildthanbelltowerswatermillsdivertfundsfromcommercewatermillsmightwellbedestroyedbywarTheauthorofthepassagemostprobablybaseshiscentralargumentonwhichofthefollowingtheoreticalassumptionsoftenmadebyeconomists?Differentpeopleshouldbetaxedinproportiontothebenefittheycanexpecttoreceivefrompublicactivity.Perfectcompetitionexistsonlyinthecasewherenofarmer,merchant,orlaborercontrolsalargeenoughshareofthetotalmarkettoinfluencemarketprice.Apopulationwealthyenoughtocutbackitsrateofconsumptioncanfunneltheresultingsavingsintothecreationofcapital.Afull-employmenteconomymustalways,toproduceonegood,giveupproducinganothergood.Thereisauniversaltendencyforpopulation,unlesscheckedbyfoodsupply,toincreaseinageometricprogression.TheauthorsuggeststhatcommercialexpansioninmedievalFrance“requiredconsiderableeconomicsacrifice”(lines59-60)primarilyforwhichofthefollowingreasons?Cathedralscostmoretobuildandrebuildthandidcastles.Thenumerouswarsfoughtduringtheperiodlefttheroyaltreasurybankrupt.LouisVIIleviedamorecrushingtaxburdenonhissubjectsthandidHenryII.Althoughmuchoftheavailablesurplushadbeendivertedintovineyardexpansion,thevineyardshadnotyetbeguntoproduce.Althoughmorefoodwasbeingproduced,thesubsistencelevelwasnotveryfarabovetheminimumrequiredtosustainlife.Thepassageimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingyieldedthelowestdividendtomedievalmenandwomenrelativetoitscost?Warfare VineyardexpansionWatermillconstructionCastlebuildingCathedralbuildingWhichofthefollowingstatementsbestexpressesthecentralideaofthepassage?CommercialgrowthinmedievalFrancemaybeaccuratelycomputedbycalculatingthenumberofcastlesandcathedralsbuiltduringtheperiod.CompetitionbetweentheChurchandthefeudalaristocracyforfundscreatedbyagriculturalsurplusdemonstrablyslowedtheeconomicgrowthofmedievalFrance.Despitesuchburdensaswarandcapitalexpansionbylandholders,commerceinmedievalFranceexpandedsteadilyastheagriculturalsurplusincreased.FundsactuallyavailableforcommerceinmedievalFrancevariedwiththedemandsplacedontheagriculturalsurplus.ThesimultaneousprogressofvineyardexpansionandbuildinginmedievalFrancegivesevidenceofarapidlyexpandingeconomy.PassagePassage74(11/22)1.C2.B3.E4.D5.A6.C7.E8.A9.D10.Passage84(21/22)Astrophysicistswrestlingwiththestudyofanewkindofstar,theflat,“two-dimensional”configurationsknownasaccretiondiskshaverecentlygainednewinsightsintothebehaviorofthesestars.Accretiondisksexistinavarietyofsituationswheremattersswirlaroundacompactstarsuchasawhitedwarfstaroraneutronstar.Accretiondisksarealsosuspectedofplayingapartinmoreexoticsituations,inwhichthecentralobjectisimaginedtobeasupermassiveblackhole,theultimateformofcollapsedmatter,ratherthanacompactstar.Themodelingofaccretiondisksisstillinitsinfancy,asituationanalogoustothedayswhenordinarystarsweremodeledbyusingelementaryscalinglawswithoutbenefitofknowledgeofthenuclearprocessesthatpowerthestars.Similarly,thebasicphysicsofthepowerbywhichaccretiondisksradiate,thoughttooriginateinaformofturbulentfriction,isknownonlyatthecrudestlevel.AccretiondiskswerefirstdefinedinthecontextofCataclysmicvariables.Inthesesystems,matterfromtheouterlayersofanordinarystarisattractedbythegravitationalinfluenceofanearbyorbitingwhitedwarfstar,thematterlostfromtheordinarystarcannotstrikethesurfaceofthetinywhitedwarfdirectlybutsettlesintoanorbitaroundthestar.Theviscosityinthediskthusformedcausesheating,radiation,andaslowspiralingofdiskmatterontothesurfaceofthewhitedwarf.Therapidadvancesmadeinx-rayastronomyinthepastdecadehaveidentifiedasecondtypeofsysteminwhichaccretiondisksoccur.Insuchasystem,anaccretiondiskwhirlsaboutaneutronstarratherthanawhitedwarf.Theinnerreachesoftheaccretiondiskextenddeeplyintothegravitationalpotentialoftheneutronstarwhereveryrapidmotionistherule.Theenergyreleasedbyfrictionandtheactualrainingofthematerialfromthediskontothesurfaceoftheneutronstarissogreatthatradiationisgivenoffinapowerfulfloodofx-rays.Andinatleastonecase,x-rayastronomersbelievethattheobjectinthecenterofanaccretiondiskisablackhole,suggestingthatathirdsystemmayexist.Ithadbeenassumedthatportionsofaccretiondiskswouldbeunstableandthat,asaresult,clumpingoftheirmatterintoringswouldoccur.Thereisnoevidencefromobservation,however,thataccretiondisksdo,infact,sufferfromtheseinstabilities.Inrecentwork,AbramowiczhasshownthataddedgravitationaleffectsduetogeneralrelativitymayaltertheexpectedNewtoniangravitationalrelationshipsinsuchawaythatthediskremainsstable,indicatingthatitispossiblethatthesepredictedinstabilitiesdonotoccur.Furtherprogresstowardunderstandingaccretiondiskswillinvolvedefiningandproposingsolutionstorestrictedproblemsjustaswasdoneinthiscaseandwasdoneandcontinuestobedoneforordinarystars.Abramowicz’workisavaluableexampleofthecarethatmustbetakenbeforereachingconclusionsregardingaccretiondisks.TheauthorofthepassageisprimarilyconcernedwithcomparingAbramowicz’worktotheworkofearlierastrophysicistsprovidinginformationaboutaccretiondisksanddiscussingsignificantnewworkdefiningtheconditionsunderaccretiondiskscanbeobservedexploringthequestionofwhetherablackholecaneverbethecentralobjectofanaccretiondiskdescribingthephenomenonofaccretiondisksandreviewingseveralconflictingtheoriesoftheiroriginsItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatpredictionsoftheinstabilityofaccretiondiskswerebasedonwhichofthefollowing?AcalculationoftheprobableeffectsofstandardNewtoniangravitationalrelationshipsAcalculationoftheprobablerelationshipbetweengeneralrelativityandstandardNewtoniangravitationalrelationshipsAcalculationoftheenergyreleasedbyfrictionwithinacompactstarObservationofthex-raysradiatedbycompactstarsObservationoftheclumpingofaccretiondiskmatterintoringsaroundcompactstarsTheauthor’sattitudetowardAbramowicz’workcanbestbedescribedasoneofuncertainapprovalunqualifiedrespectmildinterestcarefuldismissalhostileskepticismThepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutcurrentscientificknowledgeofthenuclearprocessesofordinarystars?Itspatternofdevelopmenthasbeenanalogoustothatofdevelopmentsinx-rayastronomy.Itsroleintheexplanationofturbulentfrictionhasbeensignificant.Ithascontributedtoamoreaccuratemodelingofordinarystars.Itlagsbehindknowledgeofscalinglaws.Itexplainsthebehaviorofaccretiondisksaswellast