Waterfor

?IRENAISBN:978-92-9260-526-Bluerisk,AbuDhabi,UnitedArabEmirates.

?IRENAIRENAISBN:978-92-9260-526-引用：IRENA和Bluerisk(2023)，用于氫生產(chǎn)的淡水國(guó)際可再生能源機(jī) ABOUTABOUTTheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)isanintergovernmentalorganisationthatsupportsenergy,includingbioenergy,geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solarandwindenergy,inthepursuitofsustainabledevelopment,energyaccess,energysecurityandlow-carboneconomicgrowthandprosperity.關(guān)于國(guó)際可再生能源機(jī)構(gòu)（IRENA）是一個(gè)政府間組織，支持各國(guó)向可持續(xù)能源未來(lái)過(guò)渡，并作為國(guó)際合作的主要平臺(tái)、卓越中心以及可再生能源政策、技術(shù)、資源和金融知識(shí)的寶庫(kù)。IRENA促進(jìn)各種可再生能源ABOUTABOUTinthefaceofemergingwaterchallenges.關(guān)于BlueriskCentreandauthoredbyEmanueleBianco(IRENA),TianyiLuo(Bluerisk),andDivyamNagpal(ex-IRENA).AnetaConnell(Ecolab),LorenzoRosa(CarnegieInstitutionforScience),ChaoZhangandYinshuangXia(TongjiUniversity),providedtechnicalcontributionstothereport.MarinaMelnikovaandYuryMelnikov(Mylonastars)providedusefulcontributionsandobservations.Thereportbenefitedfromthereviewsandcommentsofexperts,includingAlistairWyness,RachaelRaid(BP),NitinBassi(CEEW),YuZhang,ZiyanSha(ChinaHydrogenEnergyIndustryPromotionAssociation),CristianCarraretto,RobertoGonzales(EBRD),AnetaConnell,EmilioTenuta(Ecolab),MassimoSantarelli(PolytechnicUniversityofTurin),AlejandroLongueira(RolandBerger)andSmeetaFokeer(UNIDO).PublicationsupportwasprovidedbyFrancisFieldandStephanieClarke(IRENA).ThereportwaseditedbyFayreMakeig,withdesignprovidedbyElkanodata.Thispublicationandthematerialhereinareprovided“asis”.AllreasonableprecautionshavebeentakenbyIRENAtoverifythereliabilityofthematerialinthispublication.However,neitherIRENAnoranyofitsofficials,agents,dataorotherthird-partycontentprovidersprovidesawarrantyofanykind,eitherexpressedorimplied,andtheyacceptnoresponsibilityorliabilityforanyconsequenceofuseofthepublicationormaterialherein.TheinformationcontainedhereindoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsofallMembersofIRENA.ThementionofspecificcompaniesorcertainprojectsorproductsdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbyIRENAinpreferencetoitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationoffrontiersorboundaries.

天一（Bluerisk）·納加爾（IRENA）撰寫(xiě)。IRENA···安奈塔·康奈爾（Ecolab）、洛倫佐·羅薩（卡內(nèi)基科學(xué)研究所）、張超和夏銀霜（同濟(jì)大學(xué)··（Mylonastars）提供了有用的貢獻(xiàn)和觀察。沙子言（中國(guó)氫能產(chǎn)業(yè)促進(jìn)協(xié)會(huì)）CristianCarrarettoRobertoGonzales（歐洲復(fù)興開(kāi)發(fā)銀行）AnetaConnell、EmilioTenuta（Ecolab）、MassimoSantarelli（都靈理工大學(xué)）、AlejandroLongueira（羅蘭貝格和SmeetaFokeer（聯(lián)合國(guó)工業(yè)發(fā)展組織）。FrancisFieldStephanieClarke（國(guó)際可再生能源機(jī)構(gòu)）FayreMakeigElkanodataTableof 目 Executive ChapterIntroductiontothehydrogen-water ChapterAreviewofwaterquantityincommercial-scalehydrogen Chapter ChapterDeep-diveanalysesofnorthernChina,theGulfand ChapterConclusionsand

術(shù)語(yǔ) 執(zhí)行摘 章 氫水關(guān)系導(dǎo)論章 Chapter全球氫氣生產(chǎn)的用水足跡和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)第四章對(duì)中國(guó)北方、海灣和歐洲的深入分析結(jié)論和建 參考文 附 --PAGE10-PAGE10Figure Figure

Figure圖

不同制氫技術(shù)的平均用水量和用水強(qiáng)度對(duì) Figure Figure

圖 特定工藝的用水量示意 圖 生產(chǎn)和冷卻所需取水量占?xì)錃馍a(chǎn)總用水需求的份 Figure Figure

FigureFigure

不同氫氣生產(chǎn)技術(shù)的平均取水量和用水強(qiáng)度對(duì) 典型電解項(xiàng)目的氫氣轉(zhuǎn)化效率與取水量和用水強(qiáng)度之間的關(guān) Figure Figure underthe1.5°CFigure Figure

Figure2.5典型氫氣生產(chǎn)項(xiàng)目、熱電廠和市政的年取水 Figure3.11.5°C情景下當(dāng)前和預(yù)計(jì)的未來(lái)全球氫氣生產(chǎn) Figure3.2全球氫氣生產(chǎn)按路徑分的當(dāng)前和預(yù)計(jì)的淡水取水 Figure Figure Figure todayandin2040Figure andregionin2040Figure

FigureFigureFigureFigure

2040年全球水資源壓力狀況和綠氫、藍(lán)氫項(xiàng)目位 按水資源壓力水平劃分的全球當(dāng)前和計(jì)劃的綠氫、藍(lán)氫生 20402040年按水資源壓力水平和地區(qū)劃分的全球當(dāng)前和計(jì)劃的 產(chǎn)氫煤化工企業(yè)和黃河流域的水資源壓力水 Figure

圖 由于煤制氫，黃河流域的年取水量和用水量，按省份劃 Figure Figure BasinunderfourscenariosFigure Figure

圖 氫氣生產(chǎn)煤化工企業(yè)的分 圖 煤炭制氫的年取水量和消耗需 圖 海灣合作委員會(huì)國(guó)家的氫能工 圖 海灣合作委員會(huì)國(guó)家當(dāng)前的氫能生產(chǎn)及未來(lái)預(yù) Figure intheGulfCooperationCouncilcountriesFigure Figure Figure Figure Figure Table

FigureFigureFigure圖FigureFigure表

海灣合作委員會(huì)國(guó)家氫氣生產(chǎn)的當(dāng)前和預(yù)計(jì)海水取水和 歐洲氫能項(xiàng)目的概 歐洲按生產(chǎn)技術(shù)劃分的水壓力圖和運(yùn)營(yíng)及計(jì)劃中的氫能項(xiàng) 歐洲當(dāng)前的氫氣生產(chǎn)和預(yù) 歐洲氫氣生產(chǎn)的當(dāng)前和預(yù)計(jì)未來(lái)淡水取水和消費(fèi)需 Table

表 當(dāng)前和預(yù)計(jì)的淡水取用和消 用于氫氣生產(chǎn)（十億立方米），2050Table

Table

淡水取用和消耗強(qiáng)度數(shù)據(jù)來(lái) Box

Box Box

什么是水資源壓力 anionexchangemembrane auto-thermalreforming steammethanereforming solidoxideelectrolysercellsUnitsof cubic

AEMATRCCS碳捕CCUSGCC海GHGH2PEM質(zhì)子PVSDGSMR水SOEC固態(tài)氧化物電解池GWkgkt千噸L升m3立方米Mt Blowdownwater:WaterdrainedintentionallyfromcoolingsystemstopreventmineralCycleofconcentration:Ameasureofthebuild-upofdissolvedmineralsincoolingsystems.ThecycleiscalculatedbycomparingtheconcentrationofaparticulardissolvedsolidinthewatercomingoutofacoolingsystemtoitsconcentrationinthewaterflowingintotheDeionisedwater:Atypeofhighlypurifiedwaterthatdoesnotcontainanyatoms,ionsormolecules.Deionisationremovesdissolvedsubstanceslikesodiumchloride,minerals,carbondioxide,organicpollutantsandvariousothercontaminantsfromwater.Makeupwater:Thewateraddedbackintoacoolingsystemtoreplacewaterlostduetoevaporation,leaks,etc.Permeaterate:Inmembrane-basedwatertreatmentsystems,theratioofthevolumeofwaterpassingthroughthemembranetothetotalquantityofrawwater.lake,groundwater)foruse.Waterwithdrawal/consumptionintensity:Thequantityofwaterwithdrawnfororconsumedinthegenerationofaunitofaproduct(e.g.amegawatthourofenergy,amegatonneofhydrogen).Waterconsumption:TheportionofwithdrawnwaterthatisnotreturnedtotheWaterstress:Measuredusingtheratioofthetotalwaterwithdrawaltotheavailablerenewablefreshwatersupply.Itshouldbecalculatedatawatershedscale.Waterstressposessignificantriskstohumanandenvironmentalwell-beingandisaproxyforwatercompetitionamongsectorsanduses.

排污水：衡量冷卻系統(tǒng)中溶解礦物質(zhì)積累程度的指標(biāo)。濃縮倍數(shù)是通過(guò)比較冷卻一種高度純凈的水，不含有任何原子、離子或分子。去離子過(guò)程能從水補(bǔ)充水：滲透率：取水量：指從水源（如河流、湖泊、地下水）指為生產(chǎn)單位產(chǎn)品（如一兆瓦時(shí)的能源、一兆噸的氫氣）而抽取或水消耗量：水壓力：EXECUTIVE

Executive

Theenergysectoristhelargestwateruserofallindustrialsectors.Waterisrequiredinmanyofitsprocesses,fromfuelextractiontoelectricitygeneration.Asseenintherecentthesector.Andthedisruptionsarelikelytocontinueandtobecomeevenmorefrequent,especiallyasextremeweathereventsintensifyamidachangingclimate.Toaddressthetorenewableenergysources,whichconsumelesswaterthantraditionalfossilfuels.Cleanhydrogenhasemergedasaviablealternativeinthefightagainstclimatechange.disruptionstoproduction.Allhydrogenproductiontechnologiesrequirewaterasaninput.Waterisneedednotonlyinproductionbutalsoforcooling.Thewithdrawalandconsumptionofwaterforcleanhydrogenproductionhavebeendebated,yettoooftenthediscussionsarenotinformedbyin-depthknowledgeofthesestill-nascenttechnologies.seekstoanswersomeofthesequestions.HowmuchwaterdoesahydrogenplantactuallyThisreportreviewsthewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirementsofvariousofscalingupcleanhydrogenproduction.AveragewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensityandrangesarevisualisedinFigureS1.Greenhydrogenisthemostwaterefficientofallcleanhydrogentypes.Itisfoundthatonwithsteammethanereforming–carboncapture,utilisationandstorage(SMR-CCUS),

2022這份報(bào)告由國(guó)際可再生能源機(jī)構(gòu)（IRENA）BlueriskS1綠色氫氣是所有清潔氫氣類(lèi)型中最節(jié)水的。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，質(zhì)子交換膜（PEM）電解平均17.5（L/kg）。堿性電解緊隨其后，用水強(qiáng)度為22.3L/kg?碳捕獲、利用和儲(chǔ)存（SMR?CCUS）32.2L/kg（ATR）?CCUS24.2L/kgWATERFORHYDROGEN

FIGURES1Acomparisonofaveragewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesbyhydrogenproductiontechnology

S1Averagewaterintensity Coalgasification-Electrolysis-Electrolysis-Withdrawal Consumptionthesedatapoints.Forbluehydrogen,thecoolingrequirementsforCCUSsystemsareincluded.ForPEMandATR,availabledatapointsarelimitedsincethesetechnologiesarerelativelynew–thusthemuchsmallerrangesofvalues.ATR=autothermalreforming;CCUS=carboncapture,utilisationandstorage;

Withdrawal Consumptionthesedatapoints.Forbluehydrogen,thecoolingrequirementsforCCUSsystemsareincluded.ForPEMandATR,availabledatapointsarelimitedsincethesetechnologiesarerelativelynew–thusthemuchsmallerrangesofvalues.ATR=autothermalreforming;CCUS=carboncapture,utilisationandstorage;Coalgasificationisbyfarthemostwaterintensiveofavailabletechnologies;itwouldbeabout60%moreintensiveifequippedwithCCUS.Coalgasificationhasawaterwithdrawalrequirementofabout50L/kgandconsumes31L/kg,onaverage–roughlytwicePEM’swaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirements.EquippedwithCCUS,coalgasification’swithdrawalaswellasconsumptionrequirementscouldfurtherincreaseto80.2and49.4L/kg,respectively.Acoalgasificationhydrogenplantproducing237kilotonnes(kt)ofhydrogenperyearandequippedwithCCUSwouldwithdrawabout19millioncubicmetres(m3)ofwaterannually;thisvolumeofwatercouldsupporthalfthewaterdemandofthecityofLondonforanentireyear.

煤制氣是目前所有技術(shù)中用水強(qiáng)度最高的；如果配備CCUS，其用水強(qiáng)度將增加約60%。50L/kg31L/kgPEMCCUS80.2190（m3）的水；這一水量可以滿(mǎn)足倫敦全年一半的用水需求。EXECUTIVE

Waterisrequiredasaninputforproductionandasacoolingmediumforalltypesofhydrogenproduction.Dependingonthetechnology,theshareofwithdrawalforcoolingcanrangefrom14%to92%.Theshareofwaterwithdrawalforcoolingisthelowestforgreyhydrogenproduction,atabout14%.Greenandbrownhydrogen’ssharesare56%and52%,respectively.Bluehydrogenproductionrequiresmorewaterforcooling,duetothesignificantwaterrequirementsofCCUSsystemsforheattransfer.Coolingcanaccountforupto92%ofthetotalwithdrawalrequirementofbluehydrogen,accordingtodatafromtheNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratoryintheUnitedStates.However,moreevidenceisneededbeforeageneralproduction-coolingratiocanbedeterminedwithoutForevery1percentagepointincreaseinelectrolysisefficiency,thewaterwithdrawalaswellasconsumptionrequirementsofgreenhydrogenproductionlessenbyabout2%.Thisisprimarilybecause,forthesametypeofhydrogenproductiontechnology,themoreenergyefficientthesystemis,thelesswasteheatneedstobetransferred;thismeanslesswaterisrequiredforcooling.Whatwillbetheglobalimpactofcleanhydrogen?projectedfutureglobalhydrogenproduction.TheanalysisisbasedonIRENA’s1.5°CScenario,whichprojectssubstantialgrowthinhydrogenproductionby2050.

14%到92%不等。冷卻用水份額最低的是灰氫生產(chǎn)，約為14%。綠氫和褐氫的份額分別為56和52%。由于碳捕獲、利用與封存（CCUS）系統(tǒng)在92%。然而，在確1費(fèi)需求將減少約2%。這主要是因?yàn)椋瑢?duì)于同一種IRENA）1.5°C2050WATERFORHYDROGEN

year;thisaccountsfor0.6%oftheenergysector’stotalfreshwaterwithdrawal.AsillustratedinFigureS2,greyhydrogenproductionaccountsforabout59%oftheglobalfreshwaterbluehydrogen.Freshwaterwithdrawalsforglobalhydrogenproductioncouldmorethantripleby2040andincreasesix-foldby2050,comparedwithtoday.DrivenbythesignificantexpansionFIGURES2Currentandprojectedfreshwaterwithdrawalforglobalhydrogenproduction,bypathway

2.20.6%。如圖S2所示，灰氫生產(chǎn)約占全球制氫淡水取用量的59%，褐氫占40%，其余來(lái)自綠氫2040205020407320501210.620402.4S2

(billionm)(billionm)

Brown

Grey

Blue H2

Brown

Grey

Blue H2to75%by2050.Moderategradualincreasesinelectrolysisefficiency(7.5percentagepointsforalkaline

員會(huì)國(guó)家）SMR?CCUSATR?CCUS?CCUS，ATR?CCUS2050年逐漸增75%CCUSPEM電解，假設(shè)PEM205075%。假設(shè)電解效率適度逐步提高（7.5百分點(diǎn)，PEM4.5）Lewis等人（2022年）2中藍(lán)氫的冷卻和生產(chǎn)份額。ATR自熱重整；CCUS碳捕獲、利用和儲(chǔ)存；H氫；PEM質(zhì)子交換膜；SMR蒸汽甲烷重整。EXECUTIVE

AndthelocalAlthoughthewaterconsumedforhydrogenproductionwillnothaveasignificantimpactglobally,theimportanceofconsideringlocalwatercontextswhenplanninghydrogendevelopmentcannotbeoverstated,especiallychronicwaterriskssuchaswaterstress.Morethan35%oftheglobalgreenandbluehydrogenproductioncapacity(inoperationandplanned)islocatedinhighlywater-stressedregions.UsingtheAqueductWaterRiskIndiaislikelytohave99%ofitshydrogencapacityinextremelywater-stressedareasby2040,whileChinaandtheEU-27alsofacesignificantwaterstresschallenges.TheUnitedStatesandotherGroupofTwenty(G20)countriesareexposedtowaterstresstovarying

35（已運(yùn)營(yíng)和計(jì)劃中）位于水資源壓力高度的地區(qū)。Aqueduct204099戰(zhàn)。美國(guó)和其他二十國(guó)集團(tuán)（G20）國(guó)家不同程度地面臨水資源壓力。在水資源壓力條WATERFORHYDROGEN

NorthernCoalchemicalplantsinnorthernChinacontributesignificantlytothecountry’scurrentaccountforover30%oftheprovince’soverallindustrialwaterwithdrawal.Mostofthesecoal-firedchemicalplantsarelocatedintheYellowRiverBasin,aregionwherewaterisextremelyscarce.Over70%oftheseplantsoperateinareasunderseverewaterstress,makingthemvulnerabletofluctuationsinwateravailabilityandchangingregulations.Continuousexpansionofthehydrogenindustryisprojectedtodriveupwaterdemandregion’swaterresourcesunderevenmorestress.Atransitiontoalternativetechnologiessuchasalkalineelectrolysisbecomescrucialtosustainablyaddressthesechallengessincethesetechnologiescanhelpmeetfuturedemandforhydrogen,whilereducingtechnologiesarethuspromisingsolutionstowater-relatedconcerns.GulfCooperationofferscopeforatransitiontogreenhydrogenproduction.However,waterscarcityisaproductionandemployonce-throughcoolingsystems,raisingbothenvironmentalandeconomicconcerns,includingthermalandbrinepollutionandhighenergycosts.ThepursuitofgreenhydrogeninEuropeispivotaltotheregion’sambitiousemissionofdroughts,whichimpactenergyproductionandexacerbatewaterstress.EventhoughEurope’shydrogenconsumptionisrelativelylowtoday,theregionhasarapidlygrowing2040,potentiallyincreasingthecompetitionforlocalwateruse.AsEuropeshiftsitshydrogenproductionmix,thewaterdemandisexpectedtoincreasesignificantlyby2040.Thiswillplacenewpressuresonwaterresourcesinwater-stressedregions.Toensureasustainableandenvironmentallyresponsiblehydrogenindustry,EuropemustintegratewaterconsiderationsintoitsenergyplanninganddevelopmenttechnologiessuchasPEM-basedelectrolysis.

3070的這些企業(yè)位于嚴(yán)2030在海灣阿拉伯國(guó)家合作委員會(huì)（GCC）GCC國(guó)家的一個(gè)重大問(wèn)題，這些國(guó)家嚴(yán)重依賴(lài)海水淡化2040PEM電解等替代生產(chǎn)技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)型可以有20402314%2040PEM的水分EXECUTIVE

So,whatshouldwetowater-shortage-relatedrisks.Water-relatedimpactsandpotentialrisksneedtobecarefullyevaluatedinhydrogenwateruseregulationsmustbeestablishedforthesector,andenforced. shouldbeprioritisedinhydrogendevelopmentplans,particularlyinareaswherewaterisalreadyscarce.ofhydrogenproductionprojectsforpre-operationalevaluationpurposesandbemeteredandmonitoredduringoperation.efficiencyinenergyconversionandwaterconsumption.scaleelectrolysersandreducetheconsumptionoffreshwaterforcooling.incentivisedtousewater-efficientcoolingtechnologiessuchasaircooling.hydrogenproductionandcoolingprocessesshouldbeincentivised,evenasregulationsforthermalpollutionandbrinemanagementareenforced.

WATERFORHYDROGEN

CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOTHEHYDROGEN-WATER

第一章：Chapter1:Introductiontothehydrogen-waternexus

第一章：氫?In2015,partiestotheParisAgreementconcurredthaturgentactiontodecarbonisetheirof1.5°C”,whichcalledforpolicymakerstointensifyandaccelerateeffortstomitigatecrisis(IPCC,2018).Accordingtothereport,thereisanarrowwindowofopportunitytoenactmeaningfulmeasurestopreventfurthertemperatureincreaseandaddresstheclimatecrisis.PolicymakersmustthereforestrengtheneffortstoreduceGHGemissionsfromalleconomicactivitiesasmuchaspossible.Solutionsthatreduceonlyasmallportionofemissionsareinadequate;itisnowcriticaltoprioritiseoptionsthatcanprovidesignificantemissionfrombothatechnicalandeconomicperspective,andcorrespondingsolutionsarelimitedinnumber.Thesesectors,knownas“hard-to-abate”sectors,includesteelmaking,basicchemicalproduction,long-haulaviation,shippingandtrucktransport.

201520181.5（GHG）排放，限制全球氣溫上升并應(yīng)對(duì)氣候危機(jī)（IPCC，2018）。 WATERFORHYDROGEN

ofhydrogenwereproducedfromfossilfuelsin2022–forrefineries,theproductionofbasicchemicalsandafewotheruses(IEA,2023).Hydrogencanbeusedasafeedstock-toproducesteel,ammonia,methanol,fertilisersandsyntheticfuel,andtopowervehicles-orstored,fortimeswhenrenewablesareataofhydrogenwillbeproducedby2050(IRENA,2023a).Ofcourse,thisproductionmustcomethroughclimate-awarepathways.Thegoodnewsisthatthesepathwaysdoexist.HydrogencolourItiscommon(evenifthepracticeisdisputed)tousecolourcodingtorepresentthehydrogenproducedviadifferentpathways.Thisreportwillfollowthesamepractice.Forthoseunawareofthecolours’meaning,hereisabriefvocabulary:BrownhydrogenisproducedviacoalGreyhydrogenisproducedfrommethaneviasteammethanereforming Bluehydrogenproductionfollowsthebrownandgreyhydrogenpathways,butcouplingwithcarboncapture,utilisationandstorage(CCUS)limitsGHGemissions.captureratesandthecompletepreventionofmethaneleakagearecritical.BrownorgreyhydrogenproductionreleasessubstantialGHGemissions,renderingthesetechnologiesunsuitableonanet-zeroemissionspathway.Otherpathways,andotherelectrolysis(e.g.chemicalloopingcyclesorphotochemicalandphoto-electrochemicalroutes)havenotyetreachedcommercialmaturity,andarethusnotforeseentoplayasignificantroleinthenearfuture(andarenotincludedinthisreport).

進(jìn)入氫，宇宙中最豐富的化學(xué)物質(zhì)。202295（Mt）的氫是通過(guò)（IEA，2023）。（IRENA）1.5°C2050523（IRENA，2023a）。當(dāng)然，這種生產(chǎn)必須通過(guò)氣候感知途徑進(jìn)行。好消息是，這些途徑確實(shí)存在。棕色氫氣灰色氫氣是通過(guò)蒸汽甲烷重整（SMR） CCUS）相結(jié)合可以限制溫室氣體排放。此外，自熱重整（ATR）正受到關(guān)注，CCUS1.5°C一致的路徑上，高碳捕獲率和綠色氫氣水的重要維度同樣關(guān)鍵。仔細(xì)評(píng)估和管理用水需要區(qū)分取水和消耗（詞匯表中提供詳細(xì)定義）CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOTHEHYDROGEN-WATERThewaterTheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)underscorewater’scriticalroleinsustaininglifeandofwaterandsanitationforall.Thisgoalhighlightsresourceforlifebutalsoasanenablerofsocietalandeconomicdevelopment.Unfortunately,accesstocleanandsafewaterremainsanelusivequestformanycommunitiesaroundtheworld.Today,27%oftheworld’spopulationstilllackaccesstoanysafelymanageddrinkingwaterservices,and43%lackaccesstocleansanitation.Thechallengessurroundingaccesstowaterarenotjustaboutitsavailabilitybutaretightlyinterwovenwiththeaspectsofquality,reliabilityandaffordability.Thesechallenges,coupledwiththeimpactsofclimatechange,furtherexacerbatewaterscarcity,disruptingecosystemsandstraininglivelihoods,especiallyinmarginalisedandvulnerablecommunities.Theenergysectorreliesheavilyonwateracrossthesupplychain,fromfuelproductiontoelectricitythesectorseverelyacrosslocations,fromnuclearpowerplantsinFrancetocoal-firedpowerplantsinIndia.Disruptionsduetowatershortageshavebecomeincreasinglyfrequentasextremeweathereventsintensify.Atanationallevel,theenergysectoraccountsforasignificantshareofwaterwithdrawalsandconsumption.IntheUnitedStates,forinstance,thermalpowerplantsrequiringwaterforcoolingaccountedformorethan40%oftotalwaterwithdrawalsin2015.InChina,thepowersectoraccountsforover10%oftotalwaterwithdrawals,secondonlytoagriculture(EIA,2020;IRENAandChinaWaterRisk,2016).Thecompetitionforlimitedfreshwaterresourcesintensifiesasdemandforwatergrowsacrossend-usesectorsandclimateimpactsfurthercompoundsupplyconstraints.

第一章：

可持續(xù)發(fā)展目標(biāo)（SDGs）強(qiáng)調(diào)了水在維持生命和促進(jìn)發(fā)展中的關(guān)鍵作用。具體而言，SDG6這一目標(biāo)突出了水不僅作為生命的重要資源，還作為社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的推動(dòng)者的基礎(chǔ)性作用。27的人43的人口無(wú)法獲得清潔的衛(wèi)生設(shè)施。圍繞水資源和消耗份額。例如在美國(guó)，20154010%，僅次于農(nóng)業(yè)（EIA，2020IRENA2016）。WATERFORHYDROGEN

Thereisgrowingrecognitionoftheneedtoeffectivelyintegratewaterperspectivesintoenergysectorplanningtoaddresstrade-offsandmitigatephysicalclimateriskstothewatersectorthatcouldjeopardiseenergysecurity.Onemitigationsolutionistoreducethewaterdependencyofenergyproduction.ManycountrieshaveadoptedpowersectorGiventhefocusongreenhydrogenasasolutiontofacilitatetheenergytransitioninhard-to-abatesectorsandtheambitionofnationalandregionaltargetsandprogrammes,thewaterimplicationsofhydrogenproductionmustbeassessed.1Specifically,correlatingthelocationofannouncedprojectswithexistingwaterstress2indicatorscouldhighlightLocation-specificraisesthecapitalexpenditure(CAPEX)byupto50%,resultinginbluehydrogencostsofUSD1.5-3.0/kg.Bycontrast,greenhydrogencancostUSD4-6/kgandisgettingclosetocompetitiveonlyinregionswhereallfavourableconditionsareinplace.Forexample,inPatagonia,windenergycouldhaveacapacityfactorofalmost50%,withtheelectricitycostingUSD25-30/megawatthour(MWh).ThiswouldbesufficienttoachieveacostofaboutUSD2.5/kgforthegreenhydrogenproduced(IRENA,2020).Whilethewaterimplicationsofhydrogenconversion,transport,re-conversionandusageareworthyoffurther deterioratesfreshwaterresources’quantity(e.g.aquiferoverexploitationanddryrivers)andquality(e.g.eutrophication,organicmatterpollutionandsalineintrusion),posessignificantriskstohumanand

氣候變暖已經(jīng)限制了在熱力和核電站中用于冷卻的環(huán)境溫度水的可用性，除了在許多電力系統(tǒng)中導(dǎo)致水電發(fā)電的波動(dòng)性（彭博，202320192022）些可再生能源技術(shù)的轉(zhuǎn)型，包括太陽(yáng)能光伏（PV）和風(fēng)能，這些技術(shù)比熱力技術(shù)需要的水量少得多，將減少電力生產(chǎn)的水和碳強(qiáng)度（國(guó)際可再生能源署，2015）。例如，國(guó)際可再生能源署對(duì)中國(guó)和印度的國(guó)家自主貢獻(xiàn)的分析發(fā)現(xiàn)，擴(kuò)大可再生能203042%84%。在海灣合作委員會(huì)（GCC）地區(qū)，到203011517（國(guó)際可再生能源署，2019險(xiǎn)，20162018）。和計(jì)劃的目標(biāo)，必須評(píng)估氫能生產(chǎn)的水影響。1具體而言，將已宣布項(xiàng)目的地點(diǎn)與現(xiàn)有的2指標(biāo)相關(guān)聯(lián)，可以突出運(yùn)營(yíng)階段潛在的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，并為管理政策制定提供信息。CCS）結(jié)合生產(chǎn)藍(lán)氫，將資本支出（CAPEX）提高高達(dá)5050%，電力成本為每兆瓦小時(shí)（MWh）25?302.5美元（IRENA，2020）。CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOTHEHYDROGEN-WATERdependsmainlyonfourfactors:initialinvestments;Thecapacityfactor–thelongeranelectrolyserisinuse,themorewidelytheCAPEXcomponentisdistributed.ToreducethecostoftheelectricitytofuelhydrogenproductionandmaximisecapacityMorocco,Oman,SaudiArabiaandSpain(Chapter3).Intheabsenceofadequatefreshwaterresources,plannedgreenhydrogenprojectsmayhavetorelyondesalinationforwater.TheprocessofdesalinisingseawaterwouldaddUSD0.02-0.05tothecostofakilogrammeofhydrogen(CalderaandBreyer,2017;Delpishehetal.,2021).

第一章：CAPEX組成部分，依賴(lài)于土地和電解槽的成本，以及所有初始投資；→資本加權(quán)平均成本；→→越長(zhǎng)，CAPEX組成部分的分布越廣泛。地區(qū)，例如澳大利亞、智利、毛里塔尼亞、摩洛哥、阿曼、沙特阿拉伯和西班牙（第三章）Delpisheh2021）。 WATERFORHYDROGEN

Importantly,greenhydrogencouldthenprovideanopportunitytotackleinsteadofaggravatethewaterstresschallenge.Watersupplysystemsdesignedspecificallyforhydrogenproductioncouldbemodified(extended)soastoalsomeetotherusers’waterwithminimaladditionalcostsforhydrogenproduction.Theextendedsystemscouldhelpreducewater-relatedexpensesiftheyachieveeconomiesofscale(IRENA,2022).However,thereisasignificantlackofcomprehensiveandreliabledataconcerningtheandofinadequatequality,giventherelativelysmallnumberofstudiesinvestigatingthisinitsearlystages.Furthermore,initialstudiesprimarilyfocusedonsmall-scalehydrogenproduction,inalaboratory,whichdidnotconsiderwateruseincrucialprocesseslikecooling,whichisessentialforcommercial-scaleproduction.Thewaterstressquestionisthusanimportantone,buthasnoanswersyet.Indeed,lackbyutilisingthesolarandwindresourcesofthenortherndesertareaofthestateofSouthandpermittingrisksrelatedtowatersupplyanddesalination(Peacock,2022).Announcementsofnewhydrogenplantsoftenprecededetailedwatersupplyanalyses,whichareoftenconductedduringthefeasibilitystudyphase.Developersmustidentifyfocusinsteadonmorepromisingprojects.

系統(tǒng)實(shí)現(xiàn)了規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)（IRENA，2022），它們將有助于減少與水相關(guān)的費(fèi)用。（GW）Moolawatana和風(fēng)能資源，將氫氣出口到韓國(guó)和日本。在可行性研究確定與供水和海水淡化相關(guān)的不可接受的環(huán)境和許可風(fēng)險(xiǎn)后，計(jì)劃被擱置（Peacock，2022）。CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOTHEHYDROGEN-WATERAboutthisthewaterrisksfacingmajorhydrogenproductionregions.Althoughwaterqualityisalsoanimportantaspect,thestudyfocusesonwaterquantityduringhydrogenproductionasthehydrogenvaluechain.SMR,ATRandcoalgasification.Foreachtechnology,thewaterfootprintisassessedforeachwater-relatedprocess,includingwaterpre-treatment,hydrogenproduction,coolingandhydrogenpurification,providingabreakdownofthewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirementsforeachoftheseprocesses.Chapter3estimatesthecurrentandfuturewaterdemandofglobalhydrogenproduction,byregion.Italsoassesseshowmuchofthatwaterdemandwillbemetinwater-stressedChapter4presentsdeep-diveanalysesofthreeregions–Europe,theGCCcountriesandnorthernChina–wherethehydrogenproductionpotentialishighandwater,scarce.planninganddevelopmentforpolicymakers.

第一章：(PEM]SMRATR和煤制氣。對(duì)于每種技術(shù)，評(píng)估了與水相關(guān)的每個(gè)過(guò)程的水足跡，WATERFORHYDROGEN

CHAPTER2:AREVIEWOFWATERQUANTITYREQUIREMENTSINCOMMERCIAL-SCALEHYDROGEN

第二章：Chapter2:Areviewofwaterquantityrequirementsincommercial-scalehydrogenproduction

Thischapterprovidesadetailedreviewofthewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionrequirementsforhydrogenproductiontechnologies.Toensureeffectivecaptureoftheserequirements,hydrogenproducersandwaterserviceprovidersfromtheindustrywerewaterwithdrawalandconsumptionintensitiesforproductionatscaleareprovidedinatableandanalysed.Water-dependentprocessesingreen,greyandbrownhydrogenproductionareillustratedinschematicsandexplained.Allhydrogenproductiontechnologiesrequirewater.ItisusednotonlyduringproductionCCUSsystemsforabsorption/adsorption,separationandalsocooling.However,asmentionedearlier,dataonthewaterrequirementsofcleanhydrogenproductionareinsufficientaswellasofinadequatequality.Thisisbecausestudiesexamininghydrogenproductionanditswaterusearerelativelylimitedinnumber,consideringthenascentstageofresearchinthisfield.Further,initialstudiesinthisareafocusedprimarilyonsmall-scalehydrogenproduction,inalaboratory.Thedatareportedinthesestudiesdonotconsiderthewaterneededinprocessessuchascooling,whichiscriticalforcommercial-scaleproduction.Existingstudiesmaythusbeunderestimatingtheprojectedwaterdemandifglobalhydrogenproductionisscaleduptoalignwiththe

還用于冷卻。在某些情況下，低溫水（7°C）用于氫氣純化。此外，CCUS... WATERFORHYDROGEN

ofthewaterimplicationsofscalingupcommercialhydrogenproduction,andofthewaterconsumptionandwithdrawalintensitiesofvariousproductionprocesses.Toensureeffectivecaptureofallwaterrequirementsforcommercial-scalehydrogenproduction,hydrogenproducersandwaterserviceprovidersfromtheindustrywererequiredforcooling.Asignificantportionofthesourcedatapointsarebasedonindustrymodelsratherthanfrommetering,whichisnotyetacommonpracticeamonghydrogenThisreviewhasnotincludedsolidoxideelectrolysercells(SOEC)andanionexchangemembrane(AEM)electrolysissincethesetechnologiesarestillexperimental,withnocommercial-scaleprojectdataavailable.Forcoalgasification,thecoal-waterslurrygasificationtechnologyisconsideredsinceitaccountsforalmostallcoal-basedhydrogentoascoalgasification.WateruseinhydrogenFigure2.1illustrates–fortypicalgreen,grey,blueandbrownhydrogentechnologies–whereandhowmuchwateriswithdrawnanddischargedthroughouttheproductionprocess.Theactualquantitiesofwaterwithdrawnandconsumedaresitespecificandcouldvarybasedonfactorsincluding,forexample,thesourcewatertypeanditsquality,specifichydrogenproductiontechnology,theadoptionandtypeofcarboncapture,andcoolingtechnology.ThewaterrequirementspresentedinFigure2.2areestimatedbasedonthecommonlyusedproductionassumptionsrecommendedbytheindustryandmentionedinthefigure’snote.

本綜述不包括固體氧化物電解槽（SOEC）和陰離子交換膜（AEM）電解，因?yàn)檫@些2.2EXECUTIVE

FIGURE2.1Schematicsofprocess-specificwaterwithdrawalandconsumptioninlitresfortypicalhydrogentechnologiestogenerate1kilogrammeofhydrogen

圖2.1withdrawal（升）示BrownRiver:26.1LGroundwater:26.1Seawater:43.5

GreyRiver:22.9L

Coal-waterslurryCoal-waterslurry18.4 Ashwatersulfurremoval,andothersMakeup25.14.920.2Coal-waterslurry18.4 A