1、管理基礎主講人：宋聯可 博士管理與組織導論13Someone who works with and through other people by coordinating and integrating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals. 管理者通過協(xié)調和監(jiān)督其他人的活動來達到組織目標。1、誰是管理者14A more thorough explanation is that management is coordinating work activities so that they are c

2、ompleted efficiently and effectively with and through other people.管理通過協(xié)調和監(jiān)督他人的活動，有效率和有效果地完成工作。2、管理是什么Planning計劃Defining goals, establishing strategies to achieve goals, developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities.定義目標，制定戰(zhàn)略以獲取目標，以及制定計劃和協(xié)調活動的過程。Organizing組織Arranging work to accomplish org

3、anizational goals.安排工作以實現組織目標。Leading領導Working with and through people to accomplish goals.同別人一起或者通過別人去完成組織目標。Controlling控制Monitoring, comparing, and correcting the work.監(jiān)控、比較、糾正的過程。3、管理的職能Interpersonal roles人際關系角色Figurehead, leader, liaison掛名首腦、領導者、聯絡者。Informational roles信息傳遞角色Monitor, disseminator

4、, spokesperson臨聽者、傳播者、發(fā)言人。Decisional roles決策制定角色Disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator企業(yè)家、混亂駕馭者、資源分配者、談判者。4、管理者的角色5、管理者的技能Technical skills技術技能Knowledge and proficiency in a specific field完成特定工作所需的特定領域的知識和技術。Human skills人際技能The ability to work well with other people與其他成員和睦相處的能力。Conceptua

5、l skills概念技能The ability to think and conceptualize about abstract and complex situations concerning the organization對抽象、復雜情況進行思考和概念化的技能。186、什么是組織An Organization Defined組織A deliberate arrangement of people to accomplish some specific purpose.組織是對人員的一種精心的安排，以實現某些特定的組織目標。Common Characteristics of Organ

6、izations組織的共同特征Have a distinct purpose (goal)明確的目的Composed of people由人員組成Have a deliberate structure有精細的結構管理的昨天與今天1、管理的歷史背景Egypt (pyramids) and China (Great Wall)埃及（金字塔）和中國（長城）Venetians (floating warship assembly lines)威尼斯（移動戰(zhàn)船裝配線）Adam Smith亞當斯密Published “The Wealth of Nations國富論” in 1776Advocated t

7、he division of labor (job specialization) to increase the productivity of workers主張從勞動分工（工作專業(yè)化）中提高工人的生產率。Industrial Revolution工業(yè)革命Substituted machine power for human labor機械力代替人力Scientific Management科學管理General Administrative Theory一般行政管理理論Quantitative Management定量管理Organizational Behavior組織行為System

8、s Approach系統(tǒng)觀Contingency Approach權變理論2、主要管理理論1）Scientific Management科學管理Fredrick Winslow Taylor費雷德里克W泰羅The “father” of scientific management科學管理之父Published Principles of Scientific Management (1911)出版了科學管理原理The theory of scientific management:Using scientific methods to define the “one best way” for

9、 a job to be done用科學的方法來找到“最佳方式”Putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment將正確的人安排在適當的工作上，使用正確的工具和設備Having a standardized method of doing the job用標準的方法來工作Providing an economic incentive to the worker用刺激性的工資金來激勵工人Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 吉爾布雷思夫婦Focused on increasing wor

10、ker productivity through the reduction of wasted motion通過減少多余的行動來提高工人的工作效率Developed the microchronometerto time worker motions and optimize performance.發(fā)明測微計時表記時工人動作以最大化工作績效。Henri Fayol法約爾Believed that the practice of management was distinct from other organizational functions 相信管理與其它組織功能截然不同Develop

11、ed fourteen principles of management that applied to all organizational situations發(fā)現普遍適用于所有組織的14條管理原則14條管理原則，即分工、權力、紀律、命令一致、指揮統(tǒng)一、公益高于私利、報酬、集權或分權、層級制、秩序、公正、安全、主動、集體精神。2）General Administrative Theorists一般行政管理理論Max Weber馬克斯韋伯Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal type of organization (bureau

12、cracy)理想的組織類型（官僚行政組織）Emphasized rationality, predictability, impersonality, technical competence, and authoritarianism.強調合理性、可預測性、非個人性、技術能力、權威性。提出了理想的行政管理組織理論，也就是“官僚體制”。所謂“官僚體制”是指建立于法理型控制基礎上的一種現代社會所特有的、具有專業(yè)化功能以及固定規(guī)章制度、設科分層的組織管理形式，它是一種理性地設計出來，以協(xié)調眾多個體活動，從而有效地完成大規(guī)模管理工作，以實現組織目標為功能的合理等級組織。 行政組織理論具有以下特征：（

13、1）勞動分工。（2）權威等級。（3）正式的甄選。（4）正式的規(guī)則和法規(guī)（5）服從制度規(guī)定（6）管理者與所有者分離。3）Quantitative Approach to Management管理的定量方法Quantitative Approach定量方法Also called operations research or management science（運籌學或管理科學）管理科學學派，主張管理過程中采用科學方法和數量方法解決問題，側重分析和說明管理中科學、理性的成分和可數量化的側面。 Evolved from mathematical and statistical methods dev

14、eloped to solve WWII military logistics and quality control problems從第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間用于解決軍事問題的數學和統(tǒng)計方法基礎上發(fā)展起來的。Focuses on improving managerial decision making by applying:Statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations統(tǒng)計學、最優(yōu)化模型、信息模型和計算機模擬。4）Understanding Organizational Behavior

15、理解組織的行為 Organizational Behavior (OB)組織行為The study of the actions of people at work研究工作中人的行為 people are the most important asset of an organization人是組織中最重要的資產Early OB Advocates早期貢獻Robert Owen羅拍特歐文Hugo Munsterberg雨果芒斯特伯格Mary Parker Follett瑪麗福萊特Chester Barnard切斯特巴納德The Hawthorne Studies霍桑研究A series of

16、productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932.從1927年到1932年在西方電氣公司進行了一系列的生產率實驗。Experimental findings實驗發(fā)現Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working conditions.生產率在不利的工作條件下出乎意料地提高The effect of incentive plans was less than expected.激勵計劃的作用小于預期。Research

17、conclusion研究結論Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work behavior than do monetary incentives.社會規(guī)范、小組標準和態(tài)度對員工的產出和行為的影響比金錢因素更大工人是社會人企業(yè)中存在著“非正式組織”新型的領導能力在于提高工人的滿足程度5）The Systems Approach系統(tǒng)觀點System Defined系統(tǒng)定義A set of interrelated and interdependent p

18、arts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.系統(tǒng)是一組相互關聯和相互依賴的組成部分，它們共同組成一個統(tǒng)一的整體。Basic Types of Systems系統(tǒng)集成類型Closed systems封閉系統(tǒng)Are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment不與所處的環(huán)境相互作用，不受環(huán)境的影響 (all system input and output is internal)Open systems開放系統(tǒng)Dynamically interact to

19、 their environments by taking in inputs and transforming them into outputs that are distributed into their environments動態(tài)地與它所處的環(huán)境發(fā)生相互作用6）The Contingency Approach權變理論Also sometimes called the situational approach.情境方式There is no one universally applicable set of management principles (rules) by which

20、 to manage organizations.不存在簡單的和普遍適用的管理原則Organizations are individually different, face different situations (contingency variables), and require different ways of managing.組織不同，面臨的情境不同，需要不同的管理方式權變理論認為，在企業(yè)管理中要根據企業(yè)所處的內外條件隨機應變，沒有什么一成不變、普遍適用的“最好的”管理理論和方法。 強調在管理中要根據組織所處的內外部條件隨機應變，針對不同的具體條件尋求不同的最合適的管理模式、

21、方案或方法。組織文化與環(huán)境1、管理者：萬能的還是象征的？Omnipotent View of Management管理萬能論Managers are directly responsible for an organizations success or failure. 管理者對組織的成敗負有直接責任。The quality of the organization is determined by the quality of its managers. 管理者的素質決定了組織的素質。Symbolic View of Management管理象征論Much of an organizatio

22、ns success or failure is due to external forces outside of managers control. 組織成敗在很大程度上歸因于管理者無法控制的外部力量。The ability of managers to affect outcomes is influenced and constrained by external factors. 管理者影響結果的能力受外部因素的制約和約束。The economy, customers, governmental policies, competitors, industry conditions,

23、technology, and the actions of previous managers經濟、顧客、政府政策、競爭者行動、行業(yè)環(huán)境、技術、前任管理者的決策。Managers symbolize control and influence through their action管理者通過他們的行動來發(fā)揮象征的控制與影響。2、組織文化Organizational Culture組織文化企業(yè)文化是在一定社會大文化環(huán)境之下，經過核心人物長期倡導和全體成員共同認同，在實踐中所獲得的物質與精神的生產能力和創(chuàng)造的物質與精神財富的總和（宋聯可，2007）。 Implications:含義Cultur

24、e is a perception.文化是一種感知。Culture is shared.文化是共有的。325物質層行為層制度層精神層文化內層文化中層文化外層3、外部環(huán)境External Environment外部環(huán)境The forces and institutions outside the organization that potentially can affect the organizations performance.能夠對組織績效造成潛在影響的外部力量和機構。Components of the External Environment外部環(huán)境組成Specific enviro

25、nment: external forces that have a direct and immediate impact on the organization.具體環(huán)境：直接影響和緊密影響組織的外部力量General environment: broad economic, socio-cultural, political/legal, demographic, technological, and global conditions that may affect the organization.一般影響：可能影響組織的廣泛的經濟條件、政治/法律條件、社會文化條件、人口條件、技術條

26、件和全球條件。制定決策6281、決策制定過程Decision決策Making a choice from two or more alternatives.在兩個或更多的方案中作出選擇The Decision-Making Process決策制定過程Identifying a problem and decision criteria and allocating weights to the criteria.識別決策問題,確定決定標準,為每個決策標準分配權重.Developing, analyzing, and selecting an alternative that can resol

27、ve the problem.開發(fā),分析,選擇備選方案,方案要能解決問題.Implementing the selected alternative.實施備選方案.Evaluating the decisions effectiveness.評估決策結果.步驟1:識別決策問題Problem問題A discrepancy between an existing and desired state of affairs.現狀與希望狀態(tài)之間的差異.Characteristics of Problems問題的特征:A problem becomes a problem when a manager b

28、ecomes aware of it.當管理著意識到問題,問題變成了問題.There is pressure to solve the problem.迫于壓力要解決此問題.The manager must have the authority, information, or resources needed to solve the problem.管理者要擁有解決問題所需的權利,信息或資源.步驟2:確認決策標準Decision criteria are factors that are important (relevant) to resolving the problem. 決策標準

29、是解決問題的重要因素.Costs that will be incurred (investments required)將引起的成本(投資需要)Risks likely to be encountered (chance of failure)將遭遇的風險(失敗機會)Outcomes that are desired (growth of the firm)希望的結果(公司成長)步驟3:為決策標準分配權重Decision criteria are not of equal importance決策標準并非同等重要。Assigning a weight to each item places

30、the items in the correct priority order of their importance in the decision making process. 為每一項標準分配權重,以正確地規(guī)定它們的優(yōu)先次序.步驟4:開發(fā)備擇方案Identifying viable alternatives確認可行的備擇方案Alternatives are listed (without evaluation) that can resolve the problem.所列的備擇方案要能解決問題.步驟5:分析備擇方案Appraising each alternatives streng

31、ths and weaknesses評估每一個備擇方案的優(yōu)點和缺點.An alternatives appraisal is based on its ability to resolve the issues identified in steps 2 and 3.對備擇方案的評估是基于第二步和第三步定義的解決問題的能力.步驟6:選擇備擇方案Choosing the best alternative選擇最佳備擇方案The alternative with the highest total weight is chosen.選擇總分得分最高的備擇方案步驟7:實施備擇方案Putting the

32、 chosen alternative into action.實施選擇的備選方案Conveying the decision to and gaining commitment from those who will carry out the decision.把決策傳達給有關人員,并獲得他們對決策的承諾.步驟8:評估決策結果The soundness of the decision is judged by its outcomes.根據決策結果來評價決策How effectively was the problem resolved by outcomes resulting from

33、 the chosen alternatives?通過備擇方案問題是否有效地得到解決?If the problem was not resolved, what went wrong?如果問題仍然存在,將會發(fā)生什么事情?2、理性與有限理性Rationality理性Managers make consistent, value-maximizing choices with specified constraints.管理者制定的決策是前后一致的,是追求特定條件下的價值最大化.Assumptions are that decision makers:決策制定者的假設:Are perfectly

34、rational, fully objective, and logical.完全理性,完全客觀,符合邏輯.Have carefully defined the problem and identified all viable alternatives.問題是清晰明確的,識別了所有可靠方案.Have a clear and specific goal有一個清楚明確的目標Will select the alternative that maximizes outcomes in the organizations interests rather than in their personal

35、interests.選擇最大化組織利益的方案,而不是最大化個人利益的方案Bounded Rationality有限理性Managers make decisions rationally, but are limited (bounded) by their ability to process information.管理者理性地做出決策,但受限于自身處理信息的能力.Assumptions are that decision makers:決策者的假設:Will not seek out or have knowledge of all alternatives不能找到和有能力分析出所有備擇

36、方案.Will satisficechoose the first alternative encountered that satisfactorily solves the problemrather than maximize the outcome of their decision by considering all alternatives and choosing the best.滿意選擇第一個能滿意解決問題的方案而不是通過考慮所有的方案,選最佳的方案來最大化決策的結果Escalation of Commitment承諾升級Increasing or continuing a

37、 commitment to previous decision despite mounting evidence that the decision may have been wrong.在過去決策的基礎上不斷增加承諾,盡管有證據表明這個決策是錯誤的.The Role of Intuition直覺的角色Intuitive decision making直覺決策Making decisions on the basis of experience, feelings, and accumulated judgment.基于決策者的經驗,感覺,積累的判斷.3、結構良好問題與程序化決策Stru

38、ctured Problems結構良好問題Involve goals that clear,目標清晰Are familiar (have occurred before),問題熟悉(以前出現過)Are easily and completely definedinformation about the problem is available and complete,容易并完全識別關于問題的信息是有用的并完全的.Programmed Decision程序化決策A repetitive decision that can be handled by a routine approach.一種重

39、復性決策,運用常規(guī)方法就能處理所面臨的問題.4、結構不良問題與非程序化決策Unstructured Problems結構不良問題Problems that are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or incomplete.問題是新穎的,不經常發(fā)生的;信息是模糊的,不完整的.Problems that will require custom-made solutions.問題需要定制解決方案.Nonprogrammed Decisions非程序化決策Decisions that are unique and nonre

40、curring.決策具有唯一性和不可重復性.Decisions that generate unique responses.決策產生唯一的反應.5、決策的條件Certainty確定性A ideal situation in which a manager can make an accurate decision because the outcome of every alternative choice is known.管理者可以制定出精確的決策,因為每一種方案的結果是已知的.Risk風險性A situation in which the manager is able to esti

41、mate the likelihood (probability) of outcomes that result from the choice of particular alternatives.管理者能夠估計出每一種備擇方案的可能性.Uncertainty不確定性Limited or information prevents estimation of outcome probabilities for alternatives associated with the problem and may force managers to rely on intuition, hunche

42、s, and “gut feelings”.限制或信息阻止評估備擇方案解決問題的結果的可能性,管理者不能不靠直覺,預感,憑感覺來決策.Maximax(最大收益值規(guī)則): the optimistic managers choice to maximize the maximum payoff樂觀的管理者的選擇,最大化最大可能的收益Maximin (最小最大收益值規(guī)則): the pessimistic managers choice to maximize the minimum payoff悲觀的管理者的選擇,最大化最小可能的收益.Minimax (最小最大后悔值規(guī)則): the manag

43、ers choice to minimize his maximum regret.管理者的選擇是,最小化其最大的”遺憾”.6、決策風格Ways of thinking思維方式Rational, orderly, and consistent理性的,順序的,一致的Intuitive, creative, and unique直覺的,創(chuàng)新的,唯一的Tolerance for ambiguity模糊承受力Low tolerance: require consistency and order低承受力:需要一致和順序High tolerance: multiple thoughts simultan

44、eously高承受力:同時處理許多不同的想法Directive命令型風格Use minimal information and consider few alternatives.較低的模糊承受力,考慮少量的備擇方案.Analytic分析型風格Make careful decisions in unique situations.在獨特的情形下,認真思考決策.Conceptual概念型風格Maintain a broad outlook and consider many alternatives in making long-term decisions.維持廣泛的看法,關注長期效果來思考較

45、多的備選方案.Behavioral行為型風格Avoid conflict by working well with others and being receptive to suggestions.與他人相片避免沖突,愿意接受他人的建議.7、決策制定的偏見和錯誤Heuristics啟發(fā)法Using “rules of thumb(無科學根據)” to simplify decision making.運用無科學根據的方法來簡單決策.Overconfidence Bias自負偏見Holding unrealistically positive views of ones self and on

46、es performance.對自己及其表現持盲目樂觀態(tài)度.Immediate Gratification Bias即時滿足偏見Choosing alternatives that offer immediate rewards and that to avoid immediate costs.選擇方案時想立即獲得收益和避免成本.Anchoring Effect錨定效應Fixating on initial information and ignoring subsequent information.把注意力放在作為起點的原始信息上,不能充分接受新信息.Selective Percepti

47、on選擇性認知偏見Selecting organizing and interpreting events based on the decision makers biased perceptions.基于偏見而有選擇性的組織和說明事物.Confirmation Bias證實偏見Seeking out information that reaffirms past choices and discounting contradictory information.搜尋出再次肯定過去選擇的信息,與過去選擇相左的信息則不考慮.Framing Bias框架偏見Selecting and highl

48、ighting certain aspects of a situation while ignoring other aspects.有重點地選擇事物的某些方面,而摒棄別的方面.Availability Bias有效性偏見Losing decision-making objectivity by focusing on the most recent events.關注最近發(fā)生的事而不能客觀決策.Representation Bias典型性偏見Drawing analogies and seeing identical situations when none exist.根據某一事件與其它

49、事件的相似程度來評價事件.Randomness Bias隨機性偏見Creating unfounded meaning out of random events.從隨機事件中歸納出某個結論Sunk Costs Errors沉沒成本錯誤Forgetting that current actions cannot influence past events and relate only to future consequences.忽略了現在的決策不能糾正過去而僅與未來結果相關.Self-Serving Bias自利性偏見Taking quick credit for successes and

50、 blaming outside factors for failures.居功自傲,將失敗歸咎于外部因素.Hindsight Bias后見偏見Mistakenly believing that an event could have been predicted once the actual outcome is known (after-the-fact).得知結果后,決策制定者錯誤地認為他準確地預見了這個結果.計劃的基礎1、計劃的要素Goals (also Objectives)目標Desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire

51、organizations個體、群體或整個組織期望的產出。Provide direction and evaluation performance criteria提供決策方向和衡量績效的標準。Plans計劃Documents that outline how goals are to be accomplished計劃是一種文件，規(guī)定了怎么實現目標。Describe how resources are to be allocated and establish activity schedules描述了資源的分配和建立行動的進度。2、計劃的類型Informal Plan非正式計劃 not w

52、ritten down, short-term focus; specific to an organizational unit.不寫下來，關注短期，明確用于組織單元Formal Plan正式規(guī)劃written, specific, and long-term focus, involves shared goals for the organization.寫下來，關注長期，被組織成員所共享Single-Use Plan一次性計劃A one-time plan specifically designed to meet the need of a unique situation.為滿足特

53、定情況需要而設計的一次性計劃。Standing Plans持續(xù)性計劃Ongoing plans that provide guidance for activities performed repeatedly.提供了對重復進行的活動的持續(xù)指導。Long-Term Plans長期計劃Plans with time frames extending beyond three years超過3年的計劃。Short-Term Plans短期計劃Plans with time frames on one year or less為1年或短于1年的計劃。Specific Plans具體計劃Plans t

54、hat are clearly defined and leave no room for interpretation清晰定義和沒有任何解釋余地的計劃。Directional Plans-向性計劃Flexible plans that set out general guidelines, provide focus, yet allow discretion in implementation.具有靈活性的計劃，設立了一般的指導原則。3、傳統(tǒng)的目標設立過程Broad goals are set at the top of the organization.設立組織的最高層目標。Goals

55、are then broken into subgoals for each organizational level.將其分解為每一個組織層次的子目標。Assumes that top management knows best because they can see the “big picture.”假定最高層管理者清楚什么是最佳的目標和方式，因為他們具有更廣闊的視野。Goals are intended to direct, guide, and constrain from above.目標從上至下指導和約束員工行為。Goals lose clarity and focus as

56、lower-level managers attempt to interpret and define the goals for their areas of responsibility.基層管理者嘗試從他們的職責領域來解釋和定義這些目標，可能會讓目標失去清晰性和集中性。4、目標管理performance goals are jointly determined by employees and managers.雇員和他的管理者共同確定具體的績效目標Progress toward accomplishing goals is periodically reviewed.定期評審實現目標

57、方面的進展情況。Rewards are allocated on the basis of progress towards the goals.獎勵是基于實現目標方面的進展。Key elements of MBO:目標管理的關鍵要素：Goal specificity, participative decision making, an explicit performance/evaluation period, feedback確定目標，參與決策，明確期限，績效反饋5、SMART目標 Specific明確性 Measurable衡量性 Attainable可實現性 Realistic現實性

58、 Time-based時限性好目標的特征Written in terms of outcomes, not actions以結果而不是行為表述Focuses on the ends, not the means.關注結果，而不是方法Measurable and quantifiable可度量化和定量化Specifically defines how the outcome is to be measured and how much is expected.明確定義如何衡量結果，期望的結果程度如何Clear as to time frame清晰的時間框架How long before meas

59、uring accomplishment.多久評估結果Challenging but attainable有挑戰(zhàn)性但卻可達到Low goals do not motivate.低目標沒有激勵性High goals motivate if they can be achieved.能夠達到的目標具有激勵性Written down書面的Focuses, defines, and makes goal visible.關注點，定義，讓目標可見Communicated to all與有關成員溝通Puts everybody “on the same page.”讓每個人同樣理解6、目標設立的步驟Rev

60、iew the organizations mission statement.審視組織的使用Do goals reflect the mission?目標反應使命了嗎？Evaluate available resources.評估可獲得的資源Are resources sufficient to accomplish the mission?完成使命的資源足夠嗎？Determine goals individually or with others.制定目標時考慮相關因素Are goals specific, measurable, and timely?目標是否明確、可量、有完成期限？Wr