Chapter7

IndustrialRobotsTextA1.IndustrialrobotdevelopmentIndustrialrobotshavebeenusedincreasinglyinproductionforoverfivedecadesinwidelyvaryingapplications,rangingfromspotweldinginthemanufacturinginauto-mobilestothepick-and-placeoperationsinthepackagingindustry.Thesuccessfuldeploymentofpresentlyoveronemillionindustrialrobotshasrestedtraditionallyonanumberoffactors:onrepeatabilityasatooltoachieveconsistentquality,onthespeedandforcetheymakeavailabletomanufacturingprocesses,ontheflexibilitybroughtaboutbyprogrammability,onthepossibilitytodelegatehazardousproductiontaskstomachinestoagreaterextent,andalsoonthereductionofthemanufacturingworkforce.1.工業(yè)機(jī)器人發(fā)展50多年來，工業(yè)機(jī)器人在生產(chǎn)中的應(yīng)用日益廣泛，如汽車制造業(yè)中的點(diǎn)焊和包裝工業(yè)的拾取、放置操作等。目前100多萬工業(yè)機(jī)器人能夠成功部署取決于許多因素：例如將可重復(fù)性作為工具來實(shí)現(xiàn)穩(wěn)定的質(zhì)量，為機(jī)械制造提供可獲得的速度、力量和可編程性，以及在更大程度上把危險(xiǎn)的任務(wù)分配給機(jī)器，減少制造業(yè)的勞動(dòng)力。Butsincetheinstallationandcommissioningofrobotapplicationsisstilltodayassociatedwithappreciableeffortandcost,theunderlyingassumptionintheirlarge-scaledeploymentinproductionenvironmentsstillrestsontheeconomyofscalebroughtaboutbylargeproductlotsizesandacomparativelyrareneedforretoolingorchangeover.Inaddition,sincerobotsasarulearehazardousmachinesthatrequiresafeguardingagainsthumanintervention,investmentsinprotectiveguardsandsafetyequipmentarenon-negligible.Thefloorspaceuseofafencedrobotinstallationisalsoassociatedwithincreasingcostsforrealestate.但是，由于機(jī)器人應(yīng)用的安裝和調(diào)試需要相當(dāng)大的努力和成本，因此它們?cè)谏a(chǎn)環(huán)境中能否大規(guī)模部署，還取決于產(chǎn)品帶來的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益以及特定產(chǎn)品的需求。此外，由于機(jī)器人是需要防止人為干預(yù)的危險(xiǎn)機(jī)器，因此必須注重防護(hù)設(shè)施和安全設(shè)備上的投資。Recentyearshaveseenaratherrapiddevelopmentofmorecomplexsafetyfunctionalityforindustrialrobots,drivenfromthetechnologicalsidebyadvancesinmicroprocessorsandsafety-certifiablecomponentsonalllevels.Thebusinessopportunitythisaddressesaimsatintroducingrobotsintonewapplicationenvironments,inwhichthetraditionalbusinessparadigmdoesnothold.Inordertoreducetheneedforfloorspaceandforconventionalsafeguardingwhilemaintainingadvantagesofroboticautomationassociatedwithqualityandincreasingflexibilityfurther,robotsmustbeenhancedtobeabletooperateincloserquarterswithhumanworkersintheproductionenvironment.Whiletheapproachofhuman-robotcollaboration(HRC)inindustrialproductionisonlynowbeginningtomakeitswayintopracticalapplications,therelevantexpertcommunitieshavebeenveryactiveinthedevelopmentoftherelatedfunctionality,oftherequiredsafetycapabilitiesresidingincreasinglyinsensorsandprocessors.近年來，由于微處理器和安全認(rèn)證組件的進(jìn)步，工業(yè)機(jī)器人的安全功能得到了相當(dāng)快速的發(fā)展。本文討論的業(yè)務(wù)機(jī)會(huì)旨在將機(jī)器人引入新的應(yīng)用程序環(huán)境中，而傳統(tǒng)業(yè)務(wù)范式并不適用于這種環(huán)境。為了減少地板空間的占用和傳統(tǒng)的防護(hù)工作，保持機(jī)器人自動(dòng)化的一致性，如想進(jìn)一步增加機(jī)器人的靈活性，必須增加機(jī)器人在生產(chǎn)過程中與人工的距離。雖然在工業(yè)生產(chǎn)中的人機(jī)協(xié)作（HRC）方法現(xiàn)在才進(jìn)入實(shí)際應(yīng)用，但相關(guān)專家團(tuán)體一直非常積極地開發(fā)傳感器和處理器中的安全能力以及相關(guān)功能。2.HistoricalOverviewofIndustrialRobotsandSafetyRequirementsRobotsplayanextremelyimportantroleinoursocietytoday.Nowhereisthatmorevisiblethaninmanufacturingandtheindustrialenvironmentonaworld-widescale.Workerproductivityandcorporatecompetitivenessarekeyelementsinahealthyeconomy,andbothareenhancedbytheuseofindustrialautomationandrobots.Thisisobviousbythenumberofrobotsinusetoday–anestimated1.3millionunitsworldwide–asreportedbytheInternationalFederationofRoboticsstatisticalanalysis2.工業(yè)機(jī)器人安全歷史概述機(jī)器人在當(dāng)今社會(huì)中扮演著極其重要的角色。從世界范圍來看，制造業(yè)和工業(yè)環(huán)境最明顯。工人生產(chǎn)力和企業(yè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力是經(jīng)濟(jì)健全的關(guān)鍵因素，工業(yè)自動(dòng)化和機(jī)器人的使用提高了這兩者。據(jù)國(guó)際機(jī)器人聯(lián)合會(huì)的統(tǒng)計(jì)分析，全世界估計(jì)有130萬臺(tái)機(jī)器人。Evenasthenumbersincrease,industrialrobotscontinuetoevolvetothebenefitofworkersaroundtheworld,bothinproductivityandsafety.Sincetheverybeginningoftheroboticsindustry,safetyhasbeenanextremelyimportantconcern;andasuccessstoryfortheindustry.Theearlyhydraulicallypoweredindustrialrobotscausedmuchconcernforsafety,andthisconcernwaswarranted.Theserobotswerelargeandpowerful,withhugemechanicaladvantagecomparedtootherdevicesofthetime.Thecontrolsweresimple,andnottrulyreliable.Whiletheearlyrobotmanufacturerswerejustifiablypleasedwiththetechnologyadvancesinautomationthatthesemachinesbroughttoindustry,theconcernforthesafetyofhumansworkingaroundthesemachinesledtotheobviousconclusion–cagethemofffromtheworldanddonotletanyoneneartothem.This,ofcourse,wasasuccessfulsolution,andsafetywasachieved–atleastfornormaloperationsthatdidnotrequirehumanintervention.盡管工業(yè)機(jī)器人的數(shù)量在增加，但工業(yè)機(jī)器人在生產(chǎn)力和安全方面仍然不斷地朝著工人的利益方向發(fā)展。自從機(jī)器人產(chǎn)業(yè)開始，安全一直是一個(gè)極其重要的問題，也是該行業(yè)的一個(gè)成功范例。早期的液壓驅(qū)動(dòng)工業(yè)機(jī)器人引起了人們對(duì)安全的極大關(guān)注。這些機(jī)器人體積龐大，功能強(qiáng)大，與當(dāng)時(shí)的其他設(shè)備相比具有巨大的機(jī)械優(yōu)勢(shì)。它控制很簡(jiǎn)單，所以不是很可靠。雖然早期的機(jī)器人制造商對(duì)自動(dòng)化技術(shù)進(jìn)步感到滿意，但通過人類在這些機(jī)器周圍工作的安全性產(chǎn)生了一個(gè)明顯的結(jié)論——不讓任何人靠近它們。當(dāng)然，這是一個(gè)成功的解決方案，并且實(shí)現(xiàn)了安全性——至少對(duì)于不需要人工干預(yù)的正常操作來說是這樣。Theearlyrobotsdidmuchtoremovehumansfromhazardous,toughanddirtyjobsinthefactory.Theworkers’lifewasmuchimprovedandtheworkingconditionsaroundthefactoryimproved.Examplesincludefoundry,forgingandstampingtasks.Toensuresafetyintheworkplace,workwasstartedintheUnitedStatesandinEuropetocodifythesafetyrequirementsforhumansworkingaroundindustrialrobots.IntheUSA,theRoboticIndustriesAssociation(RIA)developedtheR15.06robotsafetystandardthroughtheAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI).InEurope,ISObroughtforththefirsteditionofISO10218in1992,whichwassubsequentlyadoptedbyCENasEN775.早期的機(jī)器人把人類從危險(xiǎn)、艱苦和骯臟的工作崗位上脫離出來。工人的生活和工廠周圍的工作條件都改善了。例如鑄造、鍛造和沖壓任務(wù)。為了確保工作場(chǎng)所的安全，美國(guó)和歐洲開始著手編纂有關(guān)人類與工業(yè)機(jī)器人工作的安全要求。在美國(guó)，機(jī)器人工業(yè)協(xié)會(huì)（RIA）通過美國(guó)國(guó)家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)協(xié)會(huì)（ANSI）制定了R15.06機(jī)器人安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在歐洲，ISO于1992年推出了ISO10218的第一版，隨后被CEN采納為EN775。Robottechnologydevelopmentcontinued,andnewer,morecapableelectricdriverobotswithservocontrolsgreatlyexpandedtheuseofindustrialrobotsintheworkplace.Whilestillnotasreliablefromasafetystandpointtotheextenttoday’robotsare,thesenewtechnologicallyadvancedmachineswentontotransformmanymoreindustrialjobsthatrequiredmoreprecisionandrepeatability,mostnotablyinweldingapplications,bothspotandarc.Formanyyears,weldingaccountedforvirtuallyhalfofallrobotapplications;andweldingcontinuestodayasaleadinguseofindustrialrobots.機(jī)器人技術(shù)繼續(xù)發(fā)展，具有更新、控制的電動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)機(jī)器人極大地?cái)U(kuò)展了工業(yè)機(jī)器人在工作場(chǎng)所的使用。雖然從安全的角度來看，這些采用新技術(shù)的機(jī)器并不像今天的機(jī)器人那么可靠，但它們改變了許多高精度和重復(fù)性的工作，尤其是在點(diǎn)焊和電弧焊接應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域。多年來，焊接幾乎占所有機(jī)器人應(yīng)用的一半；今天焊接仍然是工業(yè)機(jī)器人的主要用途。Whilesimilarinscope–industrialrobotsafety–thesetwodocumentsdidnotaddresspersonnelsafetyinthesamecontext,withtheUSAdocumentprovidingmoredetailedinformationfortheintegrationanduseofrobotswhiletheISOdocumentgavemoreemphasisonrequirementstothemanufacturersofrobots.TheapplicationofrobotmaninthefactoryisasfollowsFigure7-1.雖然有范圍相似和工業(yè)機(jī)器人安全這兩份文件，但它們并沒有在相同的上下文中討論人員安全問題，美國(guó)文件為機(jī)器人的集成和使用提供了更詳細(xì)的信息，而ISO文件則更加強(qiáng)調(diào)對(duì)機(jī)器人制造商的要求。圖7-1是機(jī)器人在工廠中的應(yīng)用場(chǎng)景。3.MovingHumansandRobotsCloserTogetherintheFactoryThepastdecadehasseengrowinginterestinthetechnologyforandeconomicrelevanceofbringinghumansandrobotsclosertogetherinthemanufacturingworkingenvironment.Asflexibilityrequirementscontinuetoincrease,theoptimaldegreeofautomationwilloftenturnouttobelessthan100%andtheroleofthehumanworkerremainsimportant.Duetotheircontributionstoproductqualityandtheirinherentflexibility,industrialrobotswillalsoretainanimportantroleinthemanufacturingenvironmentofthefuture.Theconventionaldeploymentofindustrialrobotstoautomatemanufacturingprocessesisseentohaveitsparticulareconomicadvantagesoverhardautomationandovermanuallaborforamediumrangeoflotsizes.Softeningthelimitsofroboticautomationtoallowadistributionoftasksbetweenhumansandrobotsintroducesanewdimensionintothisargumentandwidenstheapplicabilityofrobotsforindustrialproduction.InFigure7-2weshowhowtheintroductionofHRCapplicationsincreasestheareaofrelevanceofindustrialrobotsforautomatingmanufacturingtasks.3.在工廠里把人和機(jī)器人相結(jié)合過去十年，人們?cè)絹碓疥P(guān)注制造業(yè)工作環(huán)境中人和機(jī)器人的相關(guān)技術(shù)和經(jīng)濟(jì)相關(guān)性。隨著任務(wù)靈活性需求的不斷增加，自動(dòng)化的最優(yōu)程度常常會(huì)小于100%，并且人工的角色仍然很重要。由于機(jī)器人對(duì)產(chǎn)品的貢獻(xiàn)和其固有的靈活性，它們也將在未來制造環(huán)境中起著重要作用。人們認(rèn)為傳統(tǒng)的工業(yè)機(jī)器人部署自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過程比硬自動(dòng)化和中等批量的手工勞動(dòng)具有獨(dú)特的經(jīng)濟(jì)優(yōu)勢(shì)。是否放寬機(jī)器人自動(dòng)化的限制，允許人類和機(jī)器人之間有任務(wù)分配，成為了這一論點(diǎn)的一個(gè)新維度，并擴(kuò)大了機(jī)器人在工業(yè)生產(chǎn)中的適用性。在圖7-2中，展示了HRC應(yīng)用程序的引入如何增強(qiáng)工業(yè)機(jī)器人對(duì)于自動(dòng)化制造任務(wù)的相關(guān)性。Standardindustrialrobotsystemsposehazardstohumansduetotheirinertia,structureandprocessforces.Protectionstrategies,asoutlinedinsafetystandards,mustbeappliedtoassureoperatorsafety.Thepresentchallengeisrealizingtheflexiblemanufacturingenvironmentofthefuturewithamixtureofhumanworkersandrobots,inessenceacooperativemanufacturingsetting.Here,humansandrobotseachtakeonthetasksforwhichtheyarebest-suited,withfrequentinteractionandsharedprocedures.Thestricttemporalandspatialseparationbetweenthemislifted.SeveralversionsofthesecollaborativetypesofoperationhavebeenenvisionedandenablingrequirementsareestablishedintheISO10218-standard.標(biāo)準(zhǔn)工業(yè)機(jī)器人系統(tǒng)由于其慣性、結(jié)構(gòu)過程會(huì)對(duì)人體構(gòu)成危害。所以必須采用安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中概述的保護(hù)策略來確保操作人員的安全。目前的挑戰(zhàn)是怎樣實(shí)現(xiàn)未來的制造環(huán)境。由人類和機(jī)器人的混合，本質(zhì)上是一個(gè)合作的制造環(huán)境。在這里，人類和機(jī)器人各自承擔(dān)著它們最適合的任務(wù)，它們之間嚴(yán)格的工作分離被取消掉了。已經(jīng)設(shè)想了這些協(xié)作操作類型的幾個(gè)版本，并在ISO10218-標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中建立了啟用需求。4.TypesofHuman-RobotCollaborativeOperationUntilrecently,robotusersinterestedinmoreclosecollaborationbetweenrobotsandhumansintheirapplicationshavefoundthattherewaslittleguidanceforsafetyaspectsofsuchinstallationsandhave,therefore,shiedfromexploratoryworkwithoutbackinginstandards.WiththerecentrevisionofthestandardISO10218,explicitconsiderationhasbeenpaidtotheneedsofuserswishingtodeployhuman-robotcollaboration(HRC)intheirapplications.Whilethetriedandprovenbasicsafetyfunctionalityofindustrialrobotsremainsrelevantandpresentinthetextofthestandard,thenewfunctionsassociatedwithHRCarenotatthistimebasedonextensivepracticaluse.Thissituationisunlikethetypicalsituationofstandardizationprojects,inwhichgroupsofexpertsconsolidatetheknownbodyofbestpractices.InthecaseofHRC,thestandardizationeffortforsafetyisineffectaclosecooperationbetweentechnicalexpertsinindustry,academiaandresearchorganizationsaimingtodevelopsimultaneouslythebodyofknowledgegoverningthesafetyaspectsofHRCaswellasdocumentingthisalsointhetextofstandardsdocuments.4.人機(jī)協(xié)同操作的類型直到最近，對(duì)機(jī)器人和人的緊密合作感興趣的機(jī)器人用戶發(fā)現(xiàn)，這種裝置的安全方面幾乎沒有指導(dǎo)性文件，因此，在沒有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)支持的情況下回避了對(duì)機(jī)器人的探索性工作。隨著ISO10218標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的最新修訂，明確考慮了希望在應(yīng)用程序中部署人-機(jī)器人協(xié)作（HRC）。盡管工業(yè)機(jī)器人的基本安全功能已經(jīng)得到了驗(yàn)證，并且存在于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文本中，但目前與HRC相關(guān)的新功能還沒有廣泛的實(shí)際應(yīng)用。這種情況不同于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化項(xiàng)目中的典型情況，在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化項(xiàng)目中，專家組結(jié)合了已知的最佳方案。就人權(quán)事務(wù)委員會(huì)而言，安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化工作實(shí)際上是工業(yè)、學(xué)術(shù)界和研究組織的技術(shù)專家之間的密切合作，旨在開發(fā)管理安全方面的知識(shí)體系，并記錄在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文件中。ThetwopartsofISO10218presentlygiveaverybriefdescriptionofbasicsafetyrequirementsforfourbasictypesofcollaborativeoperation.目前，ISO10218的兩個(gè)部分非常簡(jiǎn)要地描述了四種基本類型的協(xié)同操作的基本安全要求。Theseapplicationscanbeclassifiedinvariousways,butanysuchclassificationrestsontheobservationthattherewillbeaportionoftheworkspaceinthecellthatisaccessiblebothtotherobotandtothehumaninaphysicallyunobstructedway.Thisvolumeiscalledthe“collaborativeworkspace”(CWS).Forthepurposesofstandardization,thepossiblebasictypesofcollaborativeoperationhavebeenchosentoreflectanumberoffundamentallydifferentmethodstoreduceriskwhenhumanandrobotsworktogetherclosely.Thesebasictypesofcollaborativeoperation,usingthetitlesofthesectionsinthestandardizationdocuments,togetherwiththemainmeasureforriskreductionforeachcase,are:這些應(yīng)用可以以各種方式分類，但是任何分類都是建立在觀察的基礎(chǔ)上的，即工作室中將有一部分工作空間可以以物理上無障礙的方式對(duì)機(jī)器人和人類進(jìn)行訪問。此文件稱為“協(xié)作工作空間”（CWS）。為了達(dá)到標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化，選擇了可能的基本操作類型，以解決當(dāng)人類和機(jī)器人緊密合作時(shí)減少風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的方法。這些基本類型的協(xié)作操作，使用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化文件各章節(jié)的標(biāo)題，以及針對(duì)每種情況提出有效的措施，這些措施包括：4.1Safety-ratedmonitoredstopWhiletheworkerisintheCWS,therobotisnotpermittedtomove.Ratheritmustholditsposition,evenifitsdrivesarestillenergized.4.2HandguidingHere,theworkerhasdirectcontroloftherobot.Motionisonlypossiblewhentheworkerpurposefullyactivatesaninputdevicetocausethedesiredmotion.Therobotspeedmustbelimitedtoavalueobtainedbyriskassessment.4.1安全等級(jí)監(jiān)控停車當(dāng)工人在CWS中時(shí)，機(jī)器人不允許移動(dòng)。相反，它必須保持它的位置，即使它的驅(qū)動(dòng)器仍然在工作中。4.2手動(dòng)引導(dǎo)在這里，工人可以直接控制機(jī)器人。只有當(dāng)工作人員有意地激活輸入設(shè)備以引起所需的運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí)，運(yùn)動(dòng)才有可能發(fā)生。機(jī)器人速度不能超過風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估得到的值。4.3SpeedandseparationmonitoringContactbetweenthemovingrobotandthehumanworkerispreventedbysupervisingtheworker’spositionandadaptingspeedand/orpositionoftherobottomaintainthiscondition.4.4PowerandforcelimitingContactbetweentherobotandthehumanworkerisconsideredpossibleasanormaleventduringtheapplication,butthenatureofthesecontactsiscontrolledbyinherentdesignmeasuresoftherobotand/orbymeasuresofsafety-ratedcontrol.Ineithercase,theobjectiveistolimitstaticandtransientforcesthattherobotisabletoimparttoexposedpartsoftheworker’sbody.4.3速度和分離監(jiān)測(cè)通過監(jiān)控工人的位置以及機(jī)器人的適應(yīng)速度和/或位置來維持這種狀態(tài)，防止移動(dòng)機(jī)器人與工人之間的接觸。4.4功率和力限制機(jī)器人與人工之間的接觸在應(yīng)用期間是正常的事件，但是這些接觸的方式由機(jī)器人的固有設(shè)計(jì)和/或安全等級(jí)控制。無論哪種情況，目標(biāo)都是限制機(jī)器人和人類接觸的時(shí)間。Realisticapplicationscanconsistofcombinationsofthesemethods.Practicalapplicationsofhuman-robotcollaborationmay,therefore,requirethatthemotionoftherobotmanipulatorbesupervised,asispossibletodaywithmanysafetycontrolleroptionsavailablewithcommercialrobotcontrollers.實(shí)際應(yīng)用中可以由這些方法組合而成。因此，人-機(jī)器人協(xié)作要求對(duì)機(jī)器人機(jī)械手的運(yùn)動(dòng)進(jìn)行監(jiān)控，就像今天有許多安全控制器可供商業(yè)機(jī)器人控制器選擇一樣。Inaddition,however,therearecapabilitiesthatarepresentlyunderdevelopment.Theseincludesensorycapabilitiesprovidingsafety-relatedinformationonthepositionofthehumanworkerandreliablepredictionsofbrakingdistancesinreal-timewhenworkerandrobotinteractinthesameworkspace,butshouldnotcomeintodirectcontact.然而，除此之外，還有一些功能正在開發(fā)中。其中包括提供工人的安全相關(guān)信息，以及當(dāng)工人和機(jī)器人在同一個(gè)工作空間互動(dòng)時(shí)，可以實(shí)時(shí)可靠地預(yù)測(cè)制動(dòng)距離，而且二者不能直接接觸。Furthermore,whenphysicalinteractionisincludedintheapplication,especiallystringentrequirementsholdonthenatureofthiscontact.Thismaybethemostchallengingofthenewmethodsforoperation,sincecontactisnolongera4.Itispossible,maybepartoftheapplication,andmustthereforebeunderstoodandcontrolled.Thisisachangeofparadigmcomparedtotheapplicationsofconventionalindustrialrobotsthatwillleadtothedevelopmentofnewtypesofrobotcontrolaswellastonewtypesofrobotmanipulators.Significantresearcheffortisbeinginvestedintothestudyofthedifferentrelevantthresholdsthatmustbeinvoked.Effortsrangefrommodelingthedynamicsinvolved,notjustoftherobot,butalsoofthehumanbody,toderivingpracticallyusablelimitcriteriathatcanbefollowedwhendesigningrobotsandapplications.Theunderlyingbiomechanicaldatais,however,stillveryscant.AsyetunpublishedworkisongoingattheUniversityofMainzandelsewheretoestablishthethresholdsdelimitingtouchsensationsfrompainsensationsinvariouszonesofthebody.Thresholdsforinjuriesassuchcannotbeinvestigateddirectly,butmustbeinferredfromotherstudiespublishedinthemedicalliterature.AsimplifiedschematicofthehierarchyofthesethresholdsisshowninFigure7-3.此外，當(dāng)應(yīng)用程序中包含物理交互時(shí)，對(duì)雙方的接觸有特別嚴(yán)格的要求。這可能是最具挑戰(zhàn)性的方法，因?yàn)橐闺p方接觸成為可能的事。這可能是實(shí)際應(yīng)用中的一部分，因此，必須研究和控制。與傳統(tǒng)工業(yè)機(jī)器人的應(yīng)用相比，這是一個(gè)范式的改變，這將導(dǎo)致新型機(jī)器人以及新型機(jī)器人機(jī)械手的發(fā)展。人們正在投入大量研究精力來研究必須調(diào)用的不同相關(guān)閾值。工作范圍從建模所涉及的動(dòng)力學(xué)出發(fā)，通過機(jī)器人和人體推導(dǎo)出實(shí)際可用的限制標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，來設(shè)計(jì)機(jī)器人和應(yīng)用。然而，基本的生物力學(xué)數(shù)據(jù)仍然非常少。到目前為止，美因茲大學(xué)（UniversityofMainz）和其他地方正在進(jìn)行一項(xiàng)尚未發(fā)表的研究，以確定身體不同部位的觸覺和痛覺之間的界限。這種界限不能直接調(diào)查，必須從醫(yī)學(xué)文獻(xiàn)中發(fā)表的其他文獻(xiàn)中推斷出來。這些界限層次結(jié)構(gòu)的簡(jiǎn)化示意圖如圖7-3所示。5.FutureOutlookWhilethe“simpler”typesofhuman-robotcollaborativeoperationbywayofasafety-ratedmonitoredstoporbyhandguidingcanberealizedwithpresentdaytechnology,thefullimplementationoftheothertwotypesarestillpendingadditionalresearchresultsandproductdevelopment.Maintainingaspecifiedseparationdistancebetweenanypartofthemovingrobotandtheworkermeansthatthecontrolsystemmustatalltimeshaveinformationnotonlyontheposeandmotionstateoftherobot,butalsoonthepositionandanticipatedmotionoftheworker,aslongasheisintheCWS.Todate,sensorssuitableforuseinsafety-ratedsystemsarelimitedtodeliveringbinaryinformationonthepresenceofanobjectinoneormorestaticallydefinedregionsinspace(zones).Onemayanticipate,however,thatsafetysensorswillbecomeavailablewiththecapabilityofdeliveringsafety-ratedpositioninformationonobjectsdetectedintheirfieldofview.5.未來展望雖然目前的技術(shù)可以實(shí)現(xiàn)安全級(jí)監(jiān)測(cè)或人機(jī)協(xié)同操作的“簡(jiǎn)單”類型，但其他兩種類型的全面實(shí)現(xiàn)還有待進(jìn)一步的研究和產(chǎn)品開發(fā)。維持指定分離距離的移動(dòng)機(jī)器人和工人意味著控制系統(tǒng)必須在任何時(shí)候都有信息。到目前為止，適合在安全等級(jí)系統(tǒng)中使用的傳感器僅限于在空間（區(qū)域）的一個(gè)或多個(gè)靜態(tài)區(qū)域中傳遞二進(jìn)制信息。然而，人們預(yù)期，安全傳感器是可以使用的，它能夠提供在其視野中探測(cè)到的目標(biāo)的安全等級(jí)和位置信息。Beforearobotarmcanreachintoatightspaceorpickupadelicateobject,therobotneedstoknowpreciselywhereitshandis.ResearchersatCarnegieMellonUniversity’sRoboticsInstitutehaveshownthatacameraattachedtotherobot’shandcanrapidlycreatea3-Dmodelofitsenvironmentandalsolocatethehandwithinthat3-Dworld.TextB在機(jī)器人手臂伸入狹窄空間或拾取精細(xì)物體之前，機(jī)器人需要精確地知道手在哪里?？▋?nèi)基·梅隆大學(xué)（CarnegieMellonUniversity）機(jī)器人研究所的研究人員已經(jīng)表明，安裝在機(jī)器人手上的相機(jī)可以快速創(chuàng)建其環(huán)境的三維模型，還可以將手定位在三維世界中。Doingsowithimprecisecamerasandwobblyarmsinreal-timeistough,buttheCMUteamfoundtheycouldimprovetheaccuracyofthemapbyincorporatingthearmitselfasasensor,usingtheangleofitsjointstobetterdeterminetheposeofthecamera.Thiswouldbeimportantforanumberofapplications,includinginspectiontasks,saidMatthewKlingensmith,aPh.D.studentinrobotics.用不精確的相機(jī)和實(shí)時(shí)搖擺的手臂來做這些是很困難的，但是CMU的團(tuán)隊(duì)發(fā)現(xiàn)他們可以將手臂本身作為一個(gè)傳感器，利用關(guān)節(jié)的角度來更好地確定相機(jī)的姿態(tài)，從而提高地圖的準(zhǔn)確性。機(jī)器人學(xué)博士生MatthewKlingensmith說，這對(duì)于包括檢查進(jìn)程在內(nèi)的許多工作都是很重要的。TheresearcherswillpresenttheirfindingsonMay17attheIEEEInternationalConferenceonRoboticsandAutomationinStockholm,Sweden.SiddharthaSrinivasa,associateprofessorofrobotics,andMichaelKaess,assistantresearchprofessorofrobotics,joinedKlingensmithinthestudy.研究人員將于5月17日在瑞典斯德哥爾摩舉行的IEEE機(jī)器人與自動(dòng)化國(guó)際會(huì)議上公布他們的發(fā)現(xiàn)。機(jī)器人學(xué)副教授SiddharthaSrinivasa和機(jī)器人學(xué)助理研究教授MichaelKaess參加了這項(xiàng)研究。Placingacameraorothersensorinthehandofarobothasbecomefeasibleassensorshavegrownsmallerandmorepower-efficient,Srinivasasaid.That’simportant,heexplained,becauserobots“usuallyhaveheadsthatconsistofastickwithacameraonit.”Theycan’tbendoverlikeapersoncouldtogetabetterviewofaworkspace.Srinivasa說，隨著傳感器的體積越來越小，其效率越來越高，將照相機(jī)或其他傳感器放在機(jī)器人手中已經(jīng)成為可能。這很重要，他解釋說，因?yàn)闄C(jī)器人“通常頭部由帶有照相機(jī)的桿子組成”，它們不能像人那樣彎腰以更好地觀察工作空間。Butaneyeinthehandisn’tmuchgoodiftherobotcan’tseeitshandanddoesn’tknowwhereitshandisre