TheoreticalApproachesto

SecondLanguageLearningDifferencesinLearningL1&L2BehaviorismInnatismInformationProcessingConnectionismTheInteractionistPosition2023/10/161二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論DifferencesinLearningL1&L2Achildoradultlearningasecondlanguageisdifferentfromachildacquiringafirstlanguageintermsofboth

1)learnercharacteristics

and

2)learningconditions2023/10/162二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論DifferencesinLearningL1&L2LearnerCharacteristics1.Knowledgeofanotherlanguage2.Cognitivematurity3.Metalinguisticawareness4.Knowledgeoftheworld5.NervousnessaboutspeakingL1L2childchildadolescent(formal)adult-?++-?++-?++-?++--++2023/10/163二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論DifferencesinLearningL1&L2LearningConditions6.Freedomtobesilent7.Ampletime&contact8.Correctivefeedback:(form)grammarandpronunciation9.Correctivefeedback:(meaning)wordchoice10.ModifiedinputL1L2childchildadolescent(formal)adult++--++-?--+-++++++++2023/10/164二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論DifferencesinLearningL1&L2Summary: SLA(SecondLanguageAcquisition)theoriesneedtoaccountforlanguageacquisitionbylearnerswithavarietyofcharacteristicsandlearninginavarietyofcontexts.2023/10/165二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論

TheoreticalApproachestoLanguageAcquisition

Behaviorism

Innatism

InteractionismImportantCharacteristics:-

Imitation-

Practice

-

Reinforcement-

Habit-formation

ApplicationtoSLA:-

CAH(contrastiveanalysishypothesis)

Focusonthelinguisticaspectsof:-

Vocabulary-

grammaticalmorphemes-

pronunciation

ImportantCharacteristics:-

LAD(languageacquisitiondevice)-

UG(universalgrammar)-

CPH(criticalperiodhypothesis)

ApplicationtoSLA:-

Krashen’s"monitormodel"1)

acquisition–learninghypothesis2)

monitorhypothesis3)

naturalorderhypothesis4)

inputhypothesis(

i+1)5)

affectivefilterhypothesis-

Informationprocessing1)

attention-processing(noticing)2)

restructuring-

Connectionism

-multipleintelligence

Focusonthelinguisticaspectsof:-

grammar/sentence-making-

pronunciationImportantCharacteristics:-

physicalinteractionwiththeenvironment-

socialinteractionwithpeople-

modifiedinteraction-

socialculturaltheoryandZPD(zoneofproximaldevelopment)

ApplicationtoSLA:-

modifiedinteraction-

socioculturaltheoryandZPD

Focusonthelinguisticaspectsof:-

languageuse-

socialfunctions2023/10/166二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論BehaviorismSkinner:languagebehavioristheproductionofcorrectresponsestostimulithroughreinforcement.Fourcharacteristicsofbehaviorism:1)imitation,2)practice,3)reinforcement,and4)habitinformationLado(1964):CA

ApersonlearninganL2startsoffwiththehabitsformedintheL1andthesehabitsinterferewiththenewonesneededfortheL2.2023/10/167二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論AmericanStructurismandBehaviorismDominanttheoriesinlinguisticsandpsychologywithintheUSAthroughoutthe1940sand1950s.It’spsychologicalbaseisbehaviorismandlinguisticbaseisstructuralism.

ThegoalofCA:todiscovertheproblemsthatforeignlanguagestudentswouldencounterinthelearningprocess.AndtoincreasetheefficiencyinL2teachingandtesting.2023/10/168二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論NegativeTransferLadoproclaimedthatmostofthedifficultiesoriginatedfromthedifferencesbetweenL1andL2.Hebelievedthatthemoredifferentthetwolanguagesare,themoredifficultlearningwouldbe,andbyknowingthis,wecouldpredictwhaterrorswouldappear.2023/10/169二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論astrongandaweakformofCALadoandhisfollowersevenprovidedthedegreeofdifferencesbetweentwolanguages.ThereexistedastrongandaweakformofContrastiveAnalysis(Wardhaugh1970).ThestrongformclaimsthatallL2errorscanbepredicatedbyidentifyingthedifferencesbetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’sL1.Theweakformofthehypothesisclaimstobediagnostic.(Tocheckwherecouldbeerroneous).2023/10/1610二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論ContrastiveAnalysis(CA)

ContrastiveAnalysiswasrootedinthepracticalneedtoteachaL2inthemosteffectivewaypossible.It’spsychologicalbaseisbehaviorismandlinguisticbaseisstructuralism.

RobertLado:advocatedtheapproachofContrastiveAnalysisinhisfirstBook,LinguisticsAcrossCulture(1957)

2023/10/1611二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論BehaviorismBehaviorismwasoftenlinkedtotheContrastiveAnalysisHypothesis(CAH):

ItpredictsthatwheretherearesimilaritiesbetweentheL1andthetargetlanguage,thelearnerwillacquiretarget-languagestructureswithease;wheretherearedifferences,thelearnerwillhavedifficulty.2023/10/1612二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論MoreDefinitionofCACA:isanapproachtothestudyofSLAwhichinvolvepredictingandexplaininglearnerproblemsbasedonacomparisonofL1andL2todeterminesimilaritiesanddifferences.ItwasheavilyinfluencedbytheorieswhichisdominantinlinguisticsandpsychologywithintheUSAthroughoutthe1940sand1950s.2023/10/1613二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論BehaviorismCriticismsabouttheCAH: Thoughalearner’sL1influencestheacquisitionofanL2,NotallerrorspredictedbytheCAHareactuallymade.ManyoftheerrorswhichlearnersmakearenotpredictableonthebasisoftheCAH.SomeerrorsaresimilaracrosslearnersfromavarietyofL1backgrounds. 2023/10/1614二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論BehaviorismSummary:

TheL1influencemaynotsimplybeamatterofthetransferofhabits,butamoresubtleandcomplexprocessofidentifyingpointsofsimilarity,weighingtheevidenceinsupportofsomeparticularfeature,andevenreflectingaboutwhetheracertainfeatureseemsto‘belong’inthestructureoftheL2.2023/10/1615二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論InnatismCompetencevs.PerformanceUniversalGrammar(UG)inrelationtosecondlanguagedevelopmentKrashen’s“monitormodel”

2023/10/1616二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:Competencevs.Performance

語(yǔ)言能力對(duì)語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用Competence語(yǔ)言能力:

Itreferstotheknowledgewhichunderliesourabilitytouselanguage.Performance語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用:

Itreferstothewayapersonactuallyuseslanguageinlistening,speaking,reading,andwriting.Performanceissubjecttovariationsduetoinattentionorfatiguewhereascompetence(atleastforthematurenativespeaker)ismorestable.2023/10/1617二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Competencevs.PerformanceSLA(secondlanguageacquisition)researchersfromtheUGperspectivearemoreinterestedinthelanguagecompetence(i.e.,knowledgeofcomplexsyntax)ofadvancedlearnersratherthaninthesimplelanguageofearlystagelearners. Theirinvestigationsofteninvolvecomparingthejudgmentsofgrammaticality（合乎語(yǔ)法性）madebyL2andL1learners,ratherthanobservationsofactuallanguageperformance(i.e.,useoflanguage).2023/10/1618二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

UniversalGrammarHowUGworksinL2development:

Twodifferentviews-1) ThenatureandavailabilityofUGinL2acquisitionisnodifferentfromthatwhichishypothesizedtoguideL1learners. AdultL2learnersneitherneednorbenefitfromerrorcorrectionandmetalinguisticinformation(元語(yǔ)言信息).Thesethingschangeonlythesuperficialappearanceoflanguageperformanceanddonotaffecttheunderlyingcompetenceofthenewlanguage.2023/10/1619二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

UniversalGrammarHowUGworksinL2development: Twodifferentviews- 2) UGmaybepresentandavailabletoL2learners,but itsexactnaturehasbeenalteredbytheprioracquisition ofthefirstlanguage. L2learnersneedtobegivensomeexplicitinformation aboutwhatisnotgrammatical（不符合語(yǔ)法規(guī)則的）intheL2.Otherwise,theymayassumethatsomestructuresoftheL1haveequivalentsintheL2when,infact,theydonot.

2023/10/1620二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Theacquisition-learninghypothesisThemonitorhypothesisThenaturalorderhypothesisTheinputhypothesisTheaffectivefilterhypothesis2023/10/1621二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Theacquisition-learninghypothesis(1)Acquisition:weacquireL2knowledgeasweareexposedtosamplesoftheL2whichweunderstandwithnoconsciousattentiontolanguageform.Itisasubconsciousandintuitive（憑直覺(jué)獲知的）

process.Learning:welearntheL2viaaconsciousprocessofstudyandattentiontoformandrulelearning.2023/10/1622二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Theacquisition-learninghypothesis(2)Krashenarguesthat“acquisition”isamoreimportantprocessofconstructingthesystemofalanguagethan“l(fā)earning”becausefluencyinL2performanceisduetowhatwehaveacquired,notwhatwehavelearned.Learningcannotturnintoacquisition.Manylearnersmay“know”rulesbutfailtoapplythem.Learnersneedtodoasmuchacquiringaspossibleinordertoachievecommunicativefluency.2023/10/1623二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Themonitorhypothesis(1)Theacquiredsystemactstoinitiatethespeaker’sutterancesandisresponsibleforfluencyandintuitivejudgmentsaboutcorrectness,whereasthelearnedsystemactsonlyasamonitor,makingminorchangesandpolishingwhattheacquiredsystemhasproduced.2023/10/1624二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Themonitorhypothesis(2)Learnersusethemonitoronlywhentheyarefocusedmoreonbeing‘correct’thanonwhattheyhavetosay,whentheyhavesufficienttimetosearchtheirmemoryfortherelevantrules,andwhentheyactuallyknowthoserules.Sinceknowingtherulesonlyhelpsthespeakersupplementwhathasbeenacquired,thefocusoflanguageteachingshouldbeoncreatingconditionsfor‘a(chǎn)cquisition’ratherthan‘learning’.

2023/10/1625二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Themonitorhypothesis(3)

Criticisms:Itisverydifficulttoshowevidenceof“monitor”use.Itisimpossibletodeterminewhathasbeenproducedbytheacquiredsystemandwhatistheresultofmonitoruse.Krashen’sclaimthatlanguagewhichisproducedquicklyandapparentlyspontaneouslymusthavebeenacquiredratherthanlearnedleavesuswithasomewhatcirculardefinition.2023/10/1626二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Thenaturalorderhypothesis(1)L2learnersacquirethefeaturesoftheTLinpredictablesequences.Contrarytointuition,theruleswhichareeasiesttostate

(andthusto‘learn’)arenotnecessarilythefirsttobeacquired.

e.g.theruleforaddingan–stothirdperson singularverbsinthepresenttense2023/10/1627二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Thenaturalorderhypothesis(2)Thenaturalorderisindependentof

theorderinwhichruleshavebeenlearnedinlanguageclasses(basedonKrashen’sstudiesofgrammaticalmorphemes).SubsequentresearchhasconfirmedthatlearnerspassthroughsequencesorstagesinL2development.2023/10/1628二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Theinputhypothesis(1)

Thelearneracquireslanguageinonlyoneway–byexposuretocomprehensibleinput. Iftheinputcontainsformsandstructuresjustbeyondthelearner’scurrentlevelofcompetenceinthelanguage(“i+1”),thenbothcomprehensionandacquisitionwilloccur.2023/10/1629二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Theinputhypothesis(2) Thecomprehensibleinput(“i+1”)hypothesisappealstointuition,buthasnotbeensubstantiatedbyempiricalstudies.

e.g.undirectedpleasurereadingasasourceof comprehensibleinput.2023/10/1630二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Theaffectivefilterhypothesis(1)“Affect”referstosuchthingsasmotives,needs,attitudes,andemotionalstates.The“affectivefilter”isanimaginarybarrier,whichpreventslearnersfromacquiringlanguagefromtheavailableinput.Dependingonthelearner’sstateofmindordisposition,thefilterlimitswhatisnoticedandwhatisacquired.Alearnerwhoisstressed,upset,anxious,self-conscious,orunmotivatedmay“filterout”input,makingitunavailableforacquisition. 2023/10/1631二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:

Krashen’s“monitormodel”Theaffectivefilterhypothesis(2)Itappearstohaveimmediateimplicationsforclassroompractice.Teachersshouldhelpstudentstolowertheaffectivefilterinlanguagelearning.Italsoappealsintuitivelytothosewhohavetriedunsuccessfullytolearnalanguageinconditionswheretheyfeltstressedoruncomfortable.However,itisdifficulttobesurethataffectivefactorscausethedifferencesinlanguageacquisition.2023/10/1632二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論Innatism:Krashen’s“monitormodel”/“hypothesis/theory”SummaryKrashen’s“monitormodel”(i.e.,acquisitionvs.learning,monitor,naturalorder,comprehensibleinput,andaffectivefilter)hasbeenveryinfluentialinsupportingcommunicativelanguageteaching(CLT),whichfocusesonusinglanguageformeaningfulinteractionandforaccomplishingtasks,ratherthanonlearningrules.MostteachersandresearchersseeKrashen’shypothesesintuitivelyappealing,butthosehypothesesarehardtobetestedbyempiricalevidence.2023/10/1633二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論InformationprocessingCognitivepsychologistsworkinginthismodelseeL2acquisitionasthebuildingupofknowledgesystemsthatenablesthelearnertousethelanguageautomatically.Theydonotassumethatthereisadifference

betweenacquisitionandlearning.Twoimportantmodels:

attention-processing(noticing)modelandrestructuringModel2023/10/1634二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論InformationprocessingAttention-processing(noticing)model:Itisassumedthatthereisalimittotheamountofinformationahumancanpayattentiontoandlearnatonetime.Gradually,throughexperienceandpractice,learnersbecomeabletousecertainpartsofthelanguageautomatically.Automaticlanguageperformancemayoriginatefromintentionalorconsciouslearning;i.e.,noticing

(McLaughlin&Schmidt).Everythingwecometoknowaboutthelanguagewasfirst“noticed”consciouslybeforewelearnit.2023/10/1635二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論InformationprocessingRestructuringModel:Sometimesthingswhichweknowanduseautomaticallymaynotbeexplainableintermsofagradualbuild-upofautomaticitythroughpractice.Theyseemrathertobebasedontheinteractionofknowledgewealreadyhave,orontheacquisitionofnewknowledge(withoutextensivepractice)whichfitsintoanexistingsystemandcausesittoberestructured.Thiscanleadtoapositiveornegativeoutcome.

e.g.“Isaw”→“Iseed”or“Isawed”– overapplyingthegeneralrule.2023/10/1636二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論ConnectionismConnectionistsarguethatwhatisinnateissimplytheabilitytolearn,notanyspecificallylinguisticstructure.Theyattributegreaterimportancetotheroleoftheenvironmentinlanguagelearning,andseetheinputastheprincipalsourceoflinguisticknowledge.Eventually,alearnerdevelopsstrongermental‘connections’betweentheelementss/hehaslearned,andthusonesituationalorlinguisticelementwillactivatetheother(s)inthelearner’smind.

2023/10/1637二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論ConnectionismFindingsofconnectionistResearch:Alearningmechanismcannotonlylearnwhatithearsbutcanalsogeneralize,eventothepointofmakingovergeneralization（過(guò)分概括）errors.Thesestudieshavedealtalmostexclusivelywiththeacquisitionofvocabularyandgrammaticalmorphemes（詞素）,thatis,aspectsofthelanguagewhichinnatistswillgrantmaybeacquiredlargelythroughmemorizationandsimplegeneralization.2023/10/1638二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論TheInteractionistPositionSLAtakesplacethroughconversationalinteraction(Hatch,Pica,andLong).LongseesmodifiedinteractionasthenecessarymechanismfortheL2acquisition.Whatlearnersneedisnotnecessarilysimplificationofthelinguisticformsbutratheranopportunitytointeractwithotherspeakers.Researchshowsthatnativespeakersconsistentlymodifytheirspeechinsustainedconversationwithnon-nativespeakers.2023/10/1639二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論TheInteractionistPositionTherelationshipbetweenmodifiedinteractionandSLA(Long):1.Interactionalmodificationmakesinputcomprehensible;2.Comprehensibleinputpromotesacquisition;Therefore, 3.Interactionalmodificationpromotesacquisition.2023/10/1640二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論TheInteractionistPositionModifiedinteractioninvolveslinguisticsimplificationsandconversationalmodifications.Examplesofconversationalmodifications:

elaboration,slowerspeechrate,gesture,additionalcontextualcues,comprehensionchecks,clarificationrequests,andself-repetitionorparaphrase.ResearchhasdemonstratedthatconversationaladjustmentscanaidcomprehensionintheL2.2023/10/1641二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論TheInteractionistPositionVygotsky’ssocioculturaltheoryLanguagedevelopmenttakesplaceinthesocialinteractionsbetweenindividuals.L2learnersadvancetohigherlevelsoflinguisticknowledgewhentheycollaborateandinteractwithspeakersoftheL2whoaremoreknowledgeablethantheyare(Lantolf).Alearneriscapabletolearninthezoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD)whenthereissupportfrominteractionwithamoreadvancedinterlocutor.2023/10/1642二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論TheInteractionistPositionThedifferencebetweenVygotsky’ssocialculturaltheoryandotherinteractionisttheories:VygotskyOthersLanguageacquisitiontakesplaceintheinteractionsoflearnerandinterlocutor（參加談話(huà)的人）.(e.g.,Moreadvancedspeakersusesomespeechstrategies–repetition,simplification,modeling-tocreatesupportiveconditionsforthelearnerstocomprehendandproducelanguage).Inputmodificationprovideslearnerswiththelinguisticrawmaterialthatismodifiedandthattheywillprocessinternallyandinvisibly.2023/10/1643二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論SummaryThereisnoagreementona“complete”theoryofsecondlanguageacquisitionyet.Eachtheoreticalframeworkhasadifferentfocusanditslimitations.Behaviorism:emphasizingstimuliandresponses,butignoringthementalprocessesthatareinvolvedinlearning.Innatism:innateLAD,basedonintuitionsInformationprocessingandconnectionism:involvingcontrolledlaboratoryexperimentswherehumanlearningissimilartocomputerprocessing.Interactionistposition:modificationofinteractionpromoteslanguageacquisitionanddevelopment.2023/10/1644二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論45TheoreticalApproachesto

L1AcquisitionBehaviorism:SaywhatIsayInnatism:It’sallinyourmindInteractionist/Developmentalperspectives:Learningfrominsideandout2023/10/1645二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論46Behaviorism:SaywhatIsaySkinner:languagebehavioristheproductionofcorrectresponsestostimulithroughreinforcement.Languagelearningistheresultof1)imitation

(word-for-wordrepetition),2)practice

(repetitivemanipulationofform),3)feedbackonsuccess(positivereinforcement),and4)habitformation.Thequalityandquantityofthelanguagethatthechildhears,aswellastheconsistencyofthereinforcementofferedbyothersintheenvironment,wouldshapethechild’slanguagebehavior.

2023/10/1646二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論47Behaviorism:

SaywhatIsayChildren’simitationsarenotrandom: Theirimitationisselectiveandbasedonwhattheyarecurrentlylearning.Theychoosetoimitatesomethingtheyhavealreadybeguntounderstand,ratherthansimplyimitatingwhatisavailableintheenvironment. Children’spracticeofnewlanguageformsThewaytheypracticenewformsisverysimilartothewayforeignlanguagestudentsdosubstitutiondrills.Theirpracticeoflanguageformsisalsoselectiveandreflectswhattheywouldliketolearn.Theyareofteninchargeoftheconversationwithadults.

2023/10/1647二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論48Behaviorism:

SaywhatIsayHowever,imitationandpracticealonecannot

explainsomeoftheformscreatedbychildren.Childrendopickoutpatterns/rulesandthengeneralizeorovergeneralizethemtonewcontexts.(seeexamplesonpp.13-14)“Sohecandoc

mylittlebump?”:showingtheunderstandingofthesuffix‘er/or’“I’mhiccingup”:showingtheunderstandingoftwo-wordverbssuchas‘standingup’and‘pickingup’Father: I’dliketoproposeatoast. Child: I’dliketoproposeapieceofbread.Mother: Iloveyoutopieces. Child: Iloveyouthreepieces.Aredogscanwiggletheirtails?

Are

thisishot?YoutookallthetowelsawaybecauseIcan’tdrymyhands.2023/10/1648二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論49Innatism:

It’sallinyourmindChomskyarguesthatbehaviorismcannotprovidesufficientexplanationsforchildren’slanguageacquisitionforthefollowingreasons:Children

come

to

know

more

about

the

structure

of

their

language

than

they

could

be

expected

to

learn

on

the

basis

of

the

samples

of

language

they

hear.Thelanguagechildren

are

exposedtoincludes

false

starts,

incomplete

sentences

and

slips

of

the

tongue,

and

yet

they

learn

to

distinguish

between

grammatical

and

ungrammatical

sentences.

Childrenarebynomeanssystematicallycorrectedorinstructedonlanguagebyparents.2023/10/1649二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論50Innatism:

It’sallinyourmindLAD(animaginary“blackbox”existingsomewhereinthebrain):LADcontainsallandonlytheprincipleswhichareuniversaltoallhumanlanguages(i.e..UniversalGrammar–UG).FortheLADtowork,childrenneedaccessonlytosamplesofanaturallanguage,whichserveasatriggertoactivatethedevice.OncetheLADisactivated,childrenareabletodiscoverthestructureofthelanguagetobelearnedbymatchingtheinnateknowledgeofbasicgrammaticalprinciples(UG)tothestructuresoftheparticularlanguageintheenvironment.2023/10/1650二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論51Innatism:

It’sallinyourmindEvidenceusedtosupportChomsky’sinnatistposition:Virtuallyallchildrensuccessfullylearntheirnativelanguageatatimeinlifewhentheywouldnotbeexpectedtolearnanythingelsesocomplicated(i.e.biologicallyprogrammed).Languageisseparatefromotheraspectsofcognitivedevelopments(e.g.,creativityandsocialgrace)andmaybelocatedinadifferent“module"ofthebrain.Thelanguagechildrenareexposedtodoesnotcontainexamplesofallthelinguisticrules

andpatterns.Animalscannotlearntomanipulateasymbolsystemascomplicatedasthenaturallanguageofa3-or4-year-oldchild.Childrenacquiregrammaticalruleswithoutgettingexplicitinstruction.Therefore,children’sacquisitionofgrammaticalrulesisprobablyguidedbyprincipleofaninnateUGwhichcouldapplytoalllanguages.2023/10/1651二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論52Innatism:

It’sallinyourmindThebiologicalbasisfortheinnatistposition:TheCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH)–

Lenneberg:Thereisaspecificandlimitedtimeperiod(i.e.,“criticalperiod”)fortheLADtoworksuccessfully. ThebestevidencefortheCPHisthatvirtuallyeverychildlearnslanguageonasimilarscheduleinspiteofdifferentenvironments.2023/10/1652二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論53Innatism:

It’sallinyourmindThreecasestudiesofabnormallanguagedevelopment-evidenceoftheCPH (Readthecasestudiesonpp.19-21).Victor–aboyofabout12yearsold(1799)Genie–agirlof13yearsold(1970)Deafsigners(nativesigners,earlylearners,vs.latelearners)2023/10/1653二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論54Interactionist/developmentalPerspectives:

LearningfrominsideandoutProblemsofInnatism:Theinnatistsplacedtoomuchemphasisonthe“finalstate”(i.e.thelinguisticcompetenceofadultnativespeakers),butnotenoughonthedevelopmentalaspectsoflanguageacquisition.Languageacquisitionisanexampleofchildren’sabilitytolearnfromexperience.

Whatchildrenneedtoknowisessentiallyavailableinthelanguagetheyareexposedto.2023/10/1654二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論55Interactionist/developmentalPerspectives:

LearningfrominsideandoutThispositionviewsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultoftheinterplaybetweentheinnatelearningabilityofchildrenandtheenvironmentinwhichtheydevelop.Developmentalpsychologistsattributemoreimportancetotheenvironmentthantheinnatists,thoughtheyalsorecognizeapowerfullearningmechanisminthehumanbrain.Theyseelanguageacquisitionassimilartoandinfluencedbytheacquisitionofotherkindsofskillandknowledge,ratherthanassomethingthatislargelyindependentofthechild’sexperienceandcognitivedevelopment.2023/10/1655二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論56TheInteractionistPositionPiaget:Languageisdependentuponandspringsfromcognitivedevelopment.Thatis,children’scognitivedevelopmentdeterminestheirlanguagedevelopment. (e.g.,theuseofwordsas“bigger”or“more”dependsonchildren’sunderstandingoftheconceptstheyrepresent.)Hearguedthatthedevelopingcognitiveunderstandingisbuiltontheinteractionbetweenthechildandthethingswhichcanbeobserved,touched,andmanipulated.Forhim,languagewasoneofanumberofsymbolsystemsdevelopedinchildhood,ratherthanaseparatemoduleofthemind.Languagecanbeusedtorepresentknowledgethatchildrenhaveacquiredthroughphysicalinteractionwiththeenvironment.2023/10/1656二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論57TheInteractionistPositionVygotsky:socioculturaltheoryofhumanmentalprocessing.Hearguedthatlanguagedevelopsprimarilyfromsocialinteraction.Zoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD):alevelthatachildisabletodowhenthereissupportfrominteractionwithamoreadvancedinterlocutor.Thatis,asupportiveinteractiveenvironmentenableschildrentoadvancetoahigherlevelofknowledgeandperformancethans/hewouldbeabletodoindependently.Heobservedtheimportanceofconversationswhichchildrenhavewithadultsandwithotherchildrenandsawintheseconversationstheoriginsofbothlanguageandthought.2023/10/1657二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論58TheInteractionistPositionHowPiaget’sviewdiffersfromVygotsky’s:Piagethypothesizedthatlanguagedevelopedasasymbolsystemtoexpressknowledgeacquiredthroughinteractionwiththephysicalworld.Vygotskyhypothesizedthatthoughtwasessentiallyinternalizedspeech,andspeechemergedinsocialinteraction.2023/10/1658二語(yǔ)習(xí)得理論59TheInteractionistPositionLang