2011年北京外國語大學中國外語教育研究中心外國語言學及應(yīng)用語言學真題及詳解I.Brieflyexplainthefollowingterms.(20points)1．perlocutionaryact【答案】AccordingtoAustin,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryactillocutionaryactperlocutionaryact.Aperlocutionaryactistheeffectoftheutterance.Thus,bysaying“Morning!”thespeakerhasmadeitclearthathewantstokeepfriendlyrelationswiththehearer.查看答案2．minimalpair【答案】Minimalpairsarethetwowordswhichareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring.Forexample,theEnglishwordsbearandpearconstituteaminimalpairastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/b/and/p/.查看答案3．distinctivefeature【答案】Thedistinctivefeaturereferstoapropertywhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.Forexample,“voicing”isadistinctivefeature,sinceitplaysanimportantroleindistinguishingobstruentsinEnglish.查看答案4．linguisticvariable【答案】Linguisticvariablearethosewherethemeaningremainconstantbutformvarieslikecatandpussyhavethesamesocialmeaningbutdifferentform.Sofarpronunciationisconcernedhouse[h]andwith[h]hassamesocialmeaningwithdifferentpronunciation.Herevariablesarejustthetoolstoanalyzethelanguagetosetsocialdimensionalsociety.查看答案5．linguafranca【答案】Itisalanguagethatisusedforcommunicationbetweendifferentgroupsofpeople,eachspeakingadifferentlanguage.Thelinguafrancacouldbeaninternationallyusedlanguageofcommunication(e.g.English),itcouldbethenativelanguageofoneofthegroups,oritcouldbealanguagewhichisnotspokennativelybyanyofthegroupsbuthasasimplifiedsentencestructureandvocabularyandisoftenamixtureoftwoormorelanguages.查看答案II.Answerthefollowingquestions.(30points)1．Whydowesaylinguisticsisascience?(10points)【答案】Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Ittriestoanswerthebasicquestions“Whatislanguage?”and“Howdoeslanguagework?”Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,e.g.English,Chinese,Arabic,andLatin,butitstudieslanguagesingeneral.Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharcfoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation;thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.（此題考查語言學作為一門學科其科學性，此題開放性試題，從其研究內(nèi)容及方法角度作答即可。）2．Brieflyexplainhowlanguageis(a)systematic(b)symbolic,and(c)social.(10points)【答案】First,languageissystematic:itconsistsofrecurrentelementswhichoccurinregularpatternsofrelationships.Alllanguageshaveaninfinitenumberofpossiblesentences,andthevastmajorityofallsentenceswhichareusedhavenotbeenmemorized.Theyarecreatedaccordingtorulesorprincipleswhichspeakersareusuallyunconsciousofusingorevenofknowingiftheyacquiredthelanguageasayoungchild.Second,languageissymbolic:sequencesofsoundsorlettersdonotinherentlypossessmeaning.Themeaningsofsymbolsinalanguagecomethroughthetacitagreementofagroupofspeakers.Third,languageissocial:eachlanguagereflectsthesocialrequirementsofthesocietythatuseit,andthereisnostandardforjudging:whetheronelanguageismoreeffectiveforcommunicationthananother,otherthantoestimatethesuccessitsusersmayhaveinachievingthesocialtasksthataredemandedofthem.（考查語言的系統(tǒng)性，象征性及社會性。）3．Linguistshavetakenaninternaland/orexternalfocustothestudyoflanguageacquisition.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetwo?(10points)【答案】Thedifferencebetweeninternalandorexternalfocustothestudyoflanguageacquisition.1)Theinternalfocusseekstoaccountforspeakers’internalized,underlyingknowledgeoflanguage.Theexternalfocusemphasizeslanguageuse,includingthefunctionsoflanguagewhicharerealizedinlearners’productionatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.2)Accordingtotheabovedifference,thelinguistNoamChomskyclaimsthathumanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.OriginallyChomskyreferredtothisinnateabilityasLanguageAcquisitionDevice,alsoknownasLAD.LaterChomskyprefersthisinnateendowmentasUniversalGrammar(UG)andholdsthatifchildrenarepre-equippedwithUG,thenwhattheyhavetolearnisthewaysinwhichtheirownlanguagemakesuseoftheseprinciplesandthevariationsonthoseprincipleswhichmayexistintheparticularlanguagetheyarelearning.Theinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.Integratedwiththeinnatistview,theinteractionistfurtherclaimsthatthemodifiedlanguagewhichissuitableforthechild’scapabilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.III.Readthefollowingparagraphsandthenanswerfourquestions.(50points)Theideabehindtheexperientialvisionoflearningisthattheuseofthetargetlanguageforcommunicativepurposesisnotonlythegoaloflearning,butalsoameansoflearninginitsownright.Thismayclearlyinvolvestudentsusinglanguagewhichtheymaynothavefullymastered,andcontrastswithothermore‘traditional’approacheswhichemphasizepartpractice(i.e.,isolatingpartsofthewholeforexplicitstudyandlearning)leadingupinamoreorlesscontrolledmannertointegratedlanguageuseforcommunicativepurposes.AnexperientialapproachtolearningmaythereforeinvolveadegreeofwhatJohnson(1982)referstoasan‘inatthedeependstrategy’.Simplythrowinglearnersintowhollyuncontrolledandundirectedlanguageuseis,ofcourse,asdubiousastrategywithrespecttolanguagelearningasdoingthesamewithsomeonewhoislearningtoswim.Forthisreason,considerableefforthasbeendevotedbymethodologists,materialwriters,andteachersinrecentdecadestothewayinwhichtwosetsoffactorscanbecombined.Oneisthebasicinsightthatlanguageusecanserveasignificantroleinpromotinglearning,andtheotheristheacknowledgementthatuseofthelanguageneedstobestructuredinacoherentandpedagogicallymanageableway.Theexperientialvisionoflearninghasevolvedinavarietyofwayssincethe1960sandisnowencounteredinanumberofdifferingforms.Nevertheless,mostexperientialapproachestolearningrestonfivemainprincipleswhichweredevelopedintheearlierdaysofthecommunicativemovement,evenifcertainreceivemoreattentioninonevariantthaninanother.Theseprinciplesarethefollowing:messagefocus,holisticpractice,theuseofauthenticmaterials,theuseofcommunicationstrategies,andtheuseofcollaborativemodesoflearning.(Tudor2001:79)Ananalyticalviewoflearningpositsthataccordingexplicitattentiontotheregularitiesoflanguageandlanguageusecanplayapositiveroleinlearning.Eachlanguagemanifestsanumberofstructuralregularitiesinareassuchasgrammar,lexisandphonology,andalsowithrespecttothewaysinwhichtheseelementsarecombinedtocommunicatemessages.Thequestion,therefore,isnotwhetherlanguageshavestructuralregularitiesornot,butwhetherandinwhichwayexplicitattentiontosuchregularitiescanfacilitatethelearningofthelanguage.Ananalyticalapproachtolearningrestsonamoreorlessmarkeddegreeofpartpractice,i.e.,isolatingpartsofthewholeforexplicitstudyandlearning,evenifitsultimategoalremainsthedevelopmentoflearners’abilitytoputthesepartstogetherforintegrated,holisticuse.Atleast,twomainconsiderationslendsupporttoananalyticalapproachtolearning.First,intermsoflearningingeneral,theisolationandpracticeofsub-partsofatargetskillisafairlycommonphenomenon…….Second,explicitidentificationofregularitiesinalanguagehasadvantageswhichJohnson(1996：83)referstoas‘generativity’and‘economy’.Masteringaregularityinalanguagegiveslearnersaccesstothegenerativepotentialofthisregularityinnewcircumstances……Explicitpresentationordiscoveryofthestructuralregularitiesofalanguagecanthereforerepresentashort-cuttomasteryofthislanguageandsupportlearners’abilitytomanipulatetheseregularitiesforcommunicativepurposes.(Tudor2001：86-7)1．Whatarethedifferencesbetweenexperientialandanalyticalmodesoflanguagelearning?(10points)2．Whatservesasthetheoreticalfoundationfortheexperientialmodeoflanguagelearningandwhatareitsadvantagesanddisadvantages?(15points)3．Whatservesasthetheoreticalfoundationfortheanalyticalmodeoflanguagelearningandwhatareitsadvantagesanddisadvantages?(15points)4．Howwouldyoubalancethetwomodesoflearninginyourteachingorlearningofaforeignlanguage?(10points)【答案】1．Theexperientialmodeistotallydifferentfromtheanalyticalmodeoflearning.AnexperientialapproachtolearningmayinvolveadegreeofwhatJohnson(1982)referstoasan‘inatthedeependstrategy’.Simplythrowinglearnersintowhollyuncontrolledandundirectedlanguageuseis,ofcourse,asdubiousastrategywithrespecttolanguagelearningasdoingthesamewithsomeonewhoislearningtoswim.Forthisreason,considerableefforthasbeendevotedbymethodologists,materialwriters,andteachers.Ananalyticalapproachtolearningrestsonamoreorlessmarkeddegreeofpartpractice,i.e.,isolatingpartsofthewholeforexplicitstudyandlearning,evenifitsultimategoalremainsthedevelopmentoflearners’abilitytoputthesepartstogetherforintegrated,holisticuse.2．Theexperientialmodeprovidesaholisticmodelofthelearningprocessandamultilinearmodelofadultdevelopment,bothofwhichareconsistentwithwhatweknowabouthowpeoplelearn,grow,anddevelop.Thetheoryistoemphasizethecentralrolethatexperienceplaysinthelearningprocess,anemphasisthatdistinguishesexperientialmodeoflanguagelearningfromotherlearningtheories.Theterm“experiential”isusedthereforetodifferentiateexperientialmodeoflanguagelearningbothfromcognitivelearningtheories,whichtendtoemphasizecognitionoveraffect,andbehaviorallearningtheoriesthatdenyanyroleforsubjectiveexperienceinthelearningprocess.However,simplythrowinglearnersintowhollyuncontrolledandundirectedlanguageuseis,ofcourse,asdubiousastrategywithrespecttolanguagelearningasdoingthesamewithsomeonewhoislearningtoswim.Therefore,thismodeoflanguagelearningrequiresthemethodologists,materialwriters,andteacherstocombinetwosetsoffactors.Oneisthebasicinsightthatlanguageusecanserveasignificantroleinpromotinglearning,andtheotheristheacknowledgementthatuseofthelanguageneedstobestructuredinacoherentandpedagogicallymanageableway.3．Ananalyticalapproachtolearningemphasizestheexplicitstudyofthelanguagelearningalinguisticandcommunicativesystem.Itischaracteristicofthegrammar-translationmethod,isfoundinthecognitivecodeapproach,invariousCALLexercises,andinform-focuslearningactivities.Itisalsopresentincertaintypesoflearnertrainingorawarenessraisingactivitiesinvolvingtheexplicitanalysisbylearnersofaspectsofthelanguagesteachingandlearningoroftheirownlanguageproduction.Eachlanguagemanifestsanumberofstructuralregularitiesinareassuchasgrammar,lexisandphonology,andalsowithrespecttothewaysinwhichtheseelementsarecombinedtocommunicatemessages.Thequestion,therefore,isnotwhetherlanguageshavestructuralregularitiesornot,butwhetherandinwhichwayexplicitattentiontosuchregularitiescanfacilitatethelearningofthelanguage.Themaincriticismofanalyticallearningisthatdeclarativeknowledgedoesnotnecessarilyfeedthroughtotheabilitytousealanguageforcommunicativepurposes.Inotherwords,someonemayhaveagoodknowledgeofstructuralregularitiesofalanguagewithoutbeingabletomakeuseofthelanguagewiththespontaneityandfluencywhicharerequiredinnormalcommunicativesituations.4．Iwouldcombinethetwoapproachestogethertolearnaforeignlanguage.First,followingtheanalyticalmodeoflanguagelearning,thebasicgrammaticalknowledgecouldbecaptured.Second,withthebasicknowledgeofstructuralregularitiesofalanguage,theexperientialmodeoflanguagelearningshouldbefollowed.Forexample,whenIlearnhowtogreetinEnglish,thefirstthingIshouldknowaboutishowtopronounce“Hello!”or“Howareyou?”andthemeaningoftheexpression.Thenthenext,Ishouldlearnintherelevantsituations.Nativespeakersmayrespondtothephaticgreetinginavarietyofwaysdependingonthecontextandonhowwelltheyknowabouttheinterlocutor;e.g.“Fine.Andyou?”,“Can’tcomplain.”,“Youknowme!”arejustafewinstancesfromthewiderepertoireofnativespeakersofEnglish.Throughthatprocess,theknowledgeofthelanguagewhichisgainedbytheanalyticalapproachcouldimprovetheabilitytousethelanguageinreality,whichcanbedevelopedbytheexperientialapproach.(此題為開放性題目，從如何運用兩種語言學習方法來學外語的角度談即可。)IV.Readthefollowingpassageandanswerthreequestions.(50points)Teachersemploydifferenttypesofconceptualorganizationandmeaning.Onelevelofmeaningrelatestosubjectmatterknowledgeandhowcurricularandcontentaspectsofteachingareconceptualized(Shulmanl987).Woods(1996)describesteachers’conceptionsoflessonsasmadeupofconceptualunitsatdifferentlevelsofabstraction.Hedistinguishesbetweenthefollowing:overallconceptualgoals-theoverallpurposesteachersidentifyforacourse;globalconceptualunits-theindividualsubcomponentsofthecurriculum(e.g.,thegrammar,reading, writing,andlisteningcomponentsofanintegratedskillscourse);intermediateconceptualunits-activities,orclustersofactivitiesframedintermsofaccomplishingoneofthehigher-levelconceptualgoals;andlocalconceptualunits-thespecificthingsteachersdotoachieveparticularinstructionaleffects.Otherconstructsthathavebeenproposedtoaccountforhowteachersrealizethecurricularagendastheysetforlessonsandthekindsofcognitiveprocessestheyemployincludelessonformats(Wong-Fillmore1985),tasks(Doyle1983),scripts,androutines(ShavelsonandStem1981).Constructssuchastheseseektodescribehowteachersapproachthesubjectmatterofteachingandhowtheytransformcontentintolearning.Muchofthisresearchdrawsonaframeworkofcognitivepsychologyandhasprovidedevidenceofthekindsofpedagogicalcontentknowledge,reasoning,andproblemsolvingteachersmakeuseofastheyteach(Cliff1991).Inadditiontothecurriculargoalsandcontent,teachershaveothermorepersonalviewsofteaching(Johnston1990).Zeichner,Tabachnick,andDensmore(1987)trytocapturethiswiththenotionofperspective,whichtheydefineasthewaysinwhichteachersunderstand,interpret,anddefinetheirenvironmentandusesuchinterpretationtoguidetheiractions.Theyfollowedteachersthroughtheiryear-longprofessionaltrainingandtheirfirstyearintheclassroom,andfoundthattheirpersonal,perspectivesservedaspowerfulinfluencesonhowtheytaught.Indescribingthebasisforteachers’conceptualizationsofgoodpractice,Clandinin(1985,1986)introducedtheconceptofimage,whichshedescribesas“acentralconstructforunderstandingteachers’knowledge”(1985：362).Animageisametaphor,suchas“theclassroomashome,”“settinguparelationshipwithchildren,"or“meetingtheneedsofstudents,”thatteachersmayhaveinmindwhentheyteach.Johnston(1992)suggeststhatimagessuchasthesearenotalwaysconscious,thattheyreflecthowteachersviewthemselvesintheirteachingcontexts,andthattheyformthesubconsciousassumptionsonwhichtheftteachingpracticesarebased.Inastudyofwhatsecondlanguageteachersperceivetobegoodclasses,Senior(1995)foundthatexperiencedESLteachersinanAustralianeducationalsettingattemptingtoimplementacommunicativemethodologyappearedtohavearrivedatthetacitassumptionthat,topromotesuccessfullanguagelearning,itisnecessarytodevelopabondedclass-thatis,oneinwhichthereisapositive,mutuallysupportivegroupatmosphere.Theteachersappearedtoemployarangeofbothconsciousandunconsciousstrategiesinordertodevelopaspiritofcohesionwithintheftclassgroups.HalkesandDeijkers(1984)refertoteachers’teachingcriteria,whicharedefinedas“personalsubjectivevaluesapersontriestopursueorkeepconstantwhileteaching.”Teachersholdpersonalviewsofthemselves,theirlearners,theirgoals,andtheirroleintheclassroomandtheypresumablytrytoreflecttheseintheftpractice.Marland(1987)examinedtheprinciplesusedtoguideandinterpretteaching,andidentifiedfivesuchworkingprinciplesthatwerederivedfromstimulatedrecallinterviewswithteachers.Forexample,the"principleofprogressivechecking"involvedcheckingstudents’progressperiodically,identifyingproblems,andprovidingindividualencouragementforlow-abilitystudents.Conners(1978)studiedelementaryteachersandfoundthatallofthoseinherstudyusedthreeoverarchingprinciplesofpracticetoguideandexplaintheftinteractiveteachingbehavior:"suppressingemotions,""teacherauthenticity,"and“self-monitoring."The"principleofteacherauthenticity"involvedtheteacherpresentingherselfinsuchawaythatgoodpersonalrelationshipswithstudentsandasociallysupportiveclassroomatmospherewouldbeachieved.Thisprinciplerequiredtheteachertoattempttobeopen,sincere,andhonest,aswellasfallible.1．Whatcouldbethetitleofthispassage?(10points)2．WhatarethefunctionsofthoseconceptualunitsasdescribedbyWoods(1996)inlanguageteaching?(20points)3．Discusstherelationshipbetween“perspective”and“image”andbetween“image”and“teachingcriteria”asmentionedinthispassage?(20points)【答案】1．Thetitleofthispassagecouldbe“TwoDimensionsofTeacherKnowledge”.Thispassagemainlyintroducestwodifferentkindsofknowledgeinfluenceteachers’understandingandpracticeofteaching.Oneissubjectmatterandcurricularissues,andhowthecontentofalessoncanbepresentedinaneffectiveandcoherentway.Thisistheaspectofteachingthathastodowithcurriculargoals,lessonplans,instructionalactivities,materials,tasks,andteachingtechniques.Theotheristheknowledgeaboutteachers’implicittheoriesofteaching-thatis,theirpersonalandsubjectivephilosophyandtheirunderstandingofwhatconstitutesgoodteaching.Itisthisdimensionthatformsthefocusofthispassage.(根據(jù)文章內(nèi)容自擬題目，并分析擬此題目的根據(jù)。)2．Woods(1996)describesteachers’conceptionsoflessonsasmadeupofconceptualunitsatdifferentlevelsofabstraction.Hedistinguishesbetweenthefollowing:overallconceptual