Guidanceforregulatingdigitalplatformsamultistakeholderapproachiveandaninitialdraftproposaloftheguidancedocumentforregulatingdigitalplatforms.AfurtherdevelopeddraftofthisdocumentwillbecirculatedbytheendofJanuary2023aheadoftheGlobalConferenceInternetforTrust,whichwillprovideaspacefordebateaboutthebroaderissuesbehindthepaper,theproposalsthemselves,andfutureactions.Aglossaryofkeyconcepts,basedoninternationalhumanrightslaw,UNsystemresolutionsanddeclarations,othersoftlawedandwillbeaddedinthenextversionofthisdraft.Allcommentsshouldbesenttothee-mail:internetconference@,mentioningthespecificparagraphnumberthecommentrefersto.Introductionolderconsultationsaguidancedocumentlplatformswiththeaimofsupportingfreedomofexpressionandtheavailabilityofaccurateandreliableherewhiledealingwithcontentthatpotentiallydamageshumanrightsanddemocracy.Thescopeofthisguidancecoversdigitalplatformlmedianetworks,searchenginesandcontentsharingplatforms.Whilethisguidanceisdevelopedforthoseplatformswhoseserviceshavethelargestsizeandreach,minimumsafetyrequirementsshouldbeappliedtoallplatformservicecompaniesregardlessofsize.relevantstakeholdersthatareconsideringhowtoregulateonlinecontent.Itsetsstandardstohelptheminthedevelopmentoflegislationandpoliciesthatareconsistentwithinternationalhumanrightsstandards,andwhichenhancetheleinformationinthepublicsphereItalsointendstoserveasaguidanceforco-regulatoryandself-regulatoryprocesses,aswellasaconcretetoolforaprocessofchecks-and-balances,throughwhichcompanies,civilsocietyorganizations,academics,thetechnicalcommunity,andjournalistscanholdaccountabletheplayersinchargeofregulating,co-regulatingandself-regulatingthisspace.WhyUNESCO?3.UNESCOhasaglobalmandatetopromotethefreeflowofideasbywordandimage.rategyforCStrategicObjective3istobuildinclusive,justandpeacefulsocietiesbypromotingfreedomofandprotectingheritageStrategicObjective4istofosteratechnologicalenvironmentintheserviceofhumankindthroughthedevelopmentanddisseminationofknowledgeandskillsandthedevelopmentofethicalstandards.ofguidanceforMembersStatesincludingadiverserangeofpublicentities,amongwhichmaybedifferenttypesofindependentregulators)anddigitalplatformservicesthemselves,tosecureinformationasapublicgood,contributestoallfiveofUNESCO’sfunctionsasalaboratoryofideas,aclearinghouse,astandard-setter,acatalystandmotorforinternationalcooperation,andacapacity-builder.5.Morespecifically,thedevelopmentofguidancefortheregulationofdigitalplatformservicesbuildsontheOrganization’sworkinthedomainofbroadcastregulationdevelopedoverseveraldecades.tformservicesfocusesonthestructuresandprocessestohelpusershaveasafer,critical,andself-determinedinteractionwithonlinecontent,dealingwithcontentthatispotentiallydamagingdemocracyandonandtheavailabilityofaccurateandreliableinformationinthepublicsphere.7.Thisguidancewill:?7.1TakeforwardtheWindhoek+30DeclarationonInformationasaPublicGood,asitcallsonallpartiestomainstreammediaandinformationliteracy,andmediaviability,principlesunanimouslyendorsedbyUNESCO’sMembersStatesduringits41stsessionofitsGeneralConference.?7.2Createamultistakeholderglobalsharedspaceforthedebatesonregulation,co-regulationandself-regulationofdigitalplatformservices,throughaninclusiveconsultativeprocessandresearchaheadoftheconference.?7.3Enableanetworkofregulatorsandregulatorysystemstodrawuponthisguidance,andfacilitatethecreationofaninternationalcommunityofgoodpracticesonhowtoapproachregulationofdigitalplatformservicestosecureinformationasapublicgoodwhileprotectingfreedomofexpressionandotherhumanrights.?7.4Serveasanadvocacyandaccountabilitytoolforalltherelevantstakeholders,whowillbeabletoadvocateforsmartregulationalignedwithhumanrights,whereitismissing,andtoholdrelevantplayers(parliaments,regulators,companies)accountable,guaranteeingthatanyregulatory,co-regulatoryandself-regulatorymeasuresdiscussedandimplementedareinlinewithinternationalhumanrightsstandards.?7.5Offerinputsto“OurCommonAgenda”,includingtheGlobalDigitalCompactandtheUNSummitoftheFuturetobeheldinSeptember2024.?7.6Feedintodiscussionsabouttheupcoming20-yearreviewin2025oftheWorldSummitontheInformationSociety(WSIS)andthereviewoftheInternetGovernanceForum(IGF).implementationoftheUNESCORecommendationontheEthicsofArtificialIntelligence,adoptedbytheUNESCOGeneralConferenceinNovember2021,andparticularlyregardingitsguidanceondigitalplatformsandonlinemediaunderthePolicyAreaforCommunicationandInformation.IndependentRegulation8.Onlinecontentrepresentsanewregulatorychallengethatmanyactors,includingstates,arestrugglingtodealwith.Existingregulatorysystemsvaryfromcountrytocountry.Insomejurisdictions,theremaybeanexistingbroadcastregulatorwhichisbeinggrantednewpowersoverdigitalplatformregulation.Inotherstatesanewregulatormaybeestablishedtoregulateonlinecontent.Thereareothercasesinhanoneregulatorybodyorinstitutionoverseestheseissuestakingintoaccountthewiderimplicationsofdigitalcontentforoursocieties.Forinstance,therearecontextswherewehaveaudio-visual,electoral,telecom,dataprotectionthistextisusingtheconceptofaregulatorysystem.Whicheveristhecase,thisguidanceoutlinestheimportanceofestablishingtheindependenceoftheregulatorysystem,howeverconstituted,aswellasensuringthatregulatorshavethenecessaryskills.9.In2006,theWorldBankpublisheditsHandbookforEvaluatingInfrastructureRegulatorySystems1inwhichitsaysthefollowingaboutindependentregulation:1WorldBankHandbookforEvaluatingInfrastructureRegulatorySystems,p.50/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-6579-349.1“Thekeycharacteristicoftheindependentregulatormodelisdecision-makingindependence.Thismeansthattheregulator’sdecisionsaremadewithouttheapre-establishedappellatepanelcanoverruletheregulator’sdecisions.Thekingindependenceareorganizationalindependence(organizationallyseparatefromexistingministriesanddepartments),financialin-dependence(anearmarked,secure,andadequatesourceoffunding),andmanagementindependence(autonomyoverinternaladministrationandprotectionfromdismissalwithoutduecause).”10.InaguidingdocumentcommissionedbyUNESCO(2016),theexpertonbroadcastingendentregulatorysystemsEveSalomonhighlighted10.1“Anindependentauthority(thatis,onewhichhasitspowersandresponsibilitiessetoutinaninstrumentofpubliclawandisempoweredtomannerandprotectedbylawagainstunwarranteddismissal)isbetterplacedtoactimpartiallyinthepublicinterestandtoavoidundueinfluencefrompoliticalbilitytooperateimpartiallyisvitaltoprotectfreedomofexpression,whichisnecessaryinafunctioningdemocracy.Independenceisalsorequiredfortheproperoperationofallofthemajorfunctionsofbroadcastingregulation,includinglicensing,applyingcontentstandardsandpositivecontentobligations,andownershipandcompetitionregulation.”211.Thisguidanceisprinciple-based–withtheregulator(ortheregulatorysystemwhenthereismorethanoneregulatoryentityorbody),settingtheoverallgoalforregulationwhichthedigitalplatformservicesmustfulfil.12.Importantly,thisguidancerecommendsthatanyregulatorysystemfocusesonthestructuresandprocessesthatservicesusetomakecontentavailable,ratherthanseekingtointerveneinactualcontentdecisions.13.Inadditiontosettingouttheprimaryregulatorygoalwhichistosupportfreedomofexpressionandtheavailabilityofaccurateandreliableinformationinthepublicspherewhiledealingwithcontentthatdamageshumanrightsanddemocracy,thegulatorortheregulatorysystemcouldspecifyanumberofissuesthatthedigitalplatformservicesshouldaddresswhenreporting.Theseareconstitution,powers,andscopeoftheregulatorysystem.2/ark:/48223/pf0000246055seealsoSeealsoPrinciple17ofDeclarationofPrinciplesonFreedomofExpressionandAccesstoInformationinAfrica/legalinstruments/detail?id=69310intotal,althoughthismaychangeastheresultoffurtherconsultationsThebenefitsofthisguidanceandproceduresthatmightbeandpractices;andforotherstakeholdersintheiradvocacyandaccountabilityefforts.Specifically,thisguidancewill:?15.1provideguidanceindevelopingregulationthatcanhelpMemberStatesaddressmoderationandcurationprocessesofcontentthatpotentiallydamagesdemocraticdiscoursesandstructuresandhumanrights,whileprotectingfreedomofressionandotherhumanrights?15.2provideguidanceonthestrengtheningandconstitutionofanindependentrregulatorysystem?15.3facilitatetheabilityofdigitalplatformstoaligntoacommonframeworkanddevelopcoherentsystemsacrossregionstominimiseinternetfragmentationtoprotectfreedomofexpressionandenhancetheavailabilityofaccurateandreliableationinthepublicsphere?15.4helpdevelopregulatorystabilityandamorecoherentglobalgovernanceeconomiesandhelpMemberStatesbefutureready”anticipatingnewchallenges;?15.5supportplatformsbyprovidingpracticalandimplementableguidancewithaviewtorealizingtheregulatorygoal.TheproposedGuidanceforregulatingdigitalplatforms:amultistakeholderapproachSectionOne-Thegoalofregulation16Theobjectiveofthisguidanceistoprotectfreedomofexpressionandenhancetheavailabilityofaccurateandreliableinformationinthepublicsphere,whiledealingwithcontentthatpotentiallydamageshumanrightsanddemocracy.17Theguidancesetsouthowtheregulatorysystemcanoverseetheconductofdigitalplatformservicesinrespecttocontentissues.18Theguidancealsooutlinesgovernmentresponsibilitiestobetransparentandaccountableabouttherequirementstheyplaceupondigitalplatformservices,particularlyregardingthealignmentwithinternationalhumanrightsstandards.Forexample,governmentsshouldbeopen,clear,andspecificaboutthetypeandvolumeofaboutpublicisingtheserequests–forinstance,contentrelevanttonationalsecurityorriouscrimethentheregulatororregulatorysystemshouldbeabletoexamine,basedonhumanrightsstandards,thevalidityofsuchrequestsandbeabletoreportpubliclyontheirfindingsandactions.Theregulatorshouldalsobeabletoscrutinizethescopeofrequeststoensureadequatebalancebetweenillegalityandfreedomofexpression.19Thiswillalsorequirefindingameanstodealwiththepotentiallyharmfulcontentthatmaydamagedemocracyandhumanrights–currentexamplesincludehatredofdefinedgroups;incitementtoviolence;harassment;mis-anddisinformation;andhostilitydirectedatwomenracialandminoritieshumanrightsdefendersorvulnerablegroups-whileprotectinginternationalstandardsoffreedomofexpression.Butweshouldtoprotecthumanrightsmustbeflexibleenoughtoadapttoneworchangingcircumstances.20Finally,thisguidanceshowsthatthisgoalcanbeachievedonlyifthereisacooperationamongthecompaniesprovidingservicesandtheregulatorysystems,whilebeingeffectiveandimplementableandprovidingrealaccountability.21Thisguidanceforregulationwillbebasedonfivekeyprinciples:platform,policiesandoperationsneedtobe(1)humanrights-based,(2)transparent,(3)empowering,accountableandverifiabletohelpensure:?21.1Platformshavecontentgovernancepoliciesandpracticesconsistentwithadequateprotectionforthewellbeingofhumanmoderators);?22.2Platformsaretransparent,beingopenabouthowtheyoperate(takingintoaccountcommercialconfidentialitywithpoliciesbeingexplainable;?22.3Platformsempoweruserstousedigitalservicesinaself-determinedandempoweringmanner,includingbeingabletoassessthequalityofinformation?22.4Platformsareaccountabletousers,thepublic,andregulatorsinimplementingtermsofserviceandcontentpolicies,includinggivingusersrightsofagainstcontentrelateddecisions?22.5Thereisindependentoversightandassessmentoftheimpactthatregulationhasoncompanies’rulesandpractices,withaviewtoadjustingregulationtomoreeffectivelyprotectinformationasapublicgood.SectionTwo-FulfillingthegoalBeforesettingouttheresponsibilitiesofdigitalplatformservicesinrespecttotheregulator,itishelpfultosetouttheresponsibilitiesofgovernmentsthatareconsideringlegislationtoregulateprocessesimpactingcontentmoderationand/orcuration,sothatsuchlegislationfulfilstheregulatorygoalsofprovidingandensuringinformationasapublicgood,whileprotectingfreedomofexpression.23Governmentsshould:?23.1Protectandrespectusers’rightstofreedomofexpression,therighttoionequalityandnondiscrimination?23.2RespecttherequirementsofArticle19(3)oftheInternationalCovenantonouldhaveabasisinlaw,havealegitimateaim,andbenecessaryandproportionaltotheharmthatisbeingrestricted;?23.3EnsurethatanyrestrictionsarealsoconsistentwithArticle20oftheICCPR;4?23.4Betransparentabouttherequeststheymaketocompaniestoremoveorrestrictcontent,andbeabletodemonstratehowthisisconsistentwithArticle19ofICCPR?23.5Guaranteethatanycontentremovalsaresubjectedtotheadequatedueflawincludingindependentjudicialreview?23.6Notimposeindirectrestrictionstocompanies(forexample,internetshutdownsforallegedorpotentialbreachesofregulations;?23.7Notsubjectstaffofcompaniestocriminalpenaltiesforanallegedorpotentialeachofregulationsasthiswillhaveachillingeffectonfreedomofexpression?23.8Regulatorswithresponsibilitiesinthisareashouldbestructuredasindependentregulators,withtheproperaccountabilitysystemsinplace.nturnthisguidancerecommendsthattheregulatorysystemexpectdigitalplatformservicestohaveinplacestructuresandprocessesandtoreporttothemonthefollowingissues25.Transparencyofprocess.Howdigitalplatformservicesfulfiltheprinciplesofityandreportingagainstwhattheysaytheydointheirtermsandconditions(T&Cs)andcommunitystandards.Thisshouldinclude:?25.1Informationaboutthereasonsbehindanyrestrictionsimposedinrelationtotheuseoftheirservicebeingpubliclyavailableinaneasilyccessibleformatintheirtermsandconditions?25.2Howcontentismanaged,includingthroughalgorithmicdecision-ockedundereitherT&Csorpursuanttogovernmentdemands/requests,and4“1.Anypropagandaforwarshallbeprohibitedbylaw.2.Anyadvocacyofnational,racialorreligioushatredthatconstitutesincitementtodiscrimination,hostilityorviolenceshallbeprohibitedbylaw.”informationrelevanttocomplaintsabouttheremoval,blocking,orrefusalto?25.3Anyinformationaboutprocessesusedbytheplatformtoenforcetheirremoval,restriction,orpromotion;?25.4Anysafeguardsappliedinrelationtoanycontentmoderationthatareputinplacetosafeguardfreedomofexpressionandtherighttoinformation,includinginresponsetogovernmentdemands/requests,particularlyinrelationtomattersofpublicinterest,soastoensureapluralityofviewsandions?25.5Howuserscanaccessthecomplaintsprocess;?25.6Anyusemadeofautomatedmeansforthepurposeofcontentmoderation,includingaspecificationoftheroleoftheautomatedmeansinthereviewprocessandanyindicatorsofthebenefitsandlimitationsoftheautomatedmeansinfulfillingthosepurposes.Contentmanagementpolicies.26.ThecontentmanagementpoliciesofdigitalplatformservicesshouldbeconsistentofcorporationsundertheUNGuidingPrinciplesforBusinessandHumanRights,theInternationalCovenantforCivilandPoliticalRightsandrelevantregionaltreaties.Theyshouldalsofollowbestpracticesasexpressed,forexample,intheSantaClaraPrinciples.527.Anyrestrictionuponcontentpostedshouldbeclearlysetoutintheplatformrules,whichshouldbeimplementedconsistently,withoutarbitrarydistinctionsmadebetweentypesofcontentorbetweenusers.?27.1Platformsshould,inpolicyandpractice,throughadequatelytrainedandstaffedpersonnel,ensurethat,ataminimum,thereisquickanddecisiveofgenocide,clearthreatsofviolence,gender-basedviolenceandincitementtohatredbasedonprotectedcharacteristics.?27.2Thereisoftenatensionbetweennationallawsandinternationalhumanrightsstandards,whichposesachallengeforanyattempttodefine5Anyrestrictionsuponcontentbeingposted,orcontentremoved,shouldbedefinedinlaw,havealegitimatepurposeandbenecessaryinademocraticsocietyandbeappliedproportionally.globalguidanceonregulation.Shouldillegalcontentbedefinedinajurisdictionthatmayviolateinternationalhumanrightslaw,theplatformwillbeexpectedtoreportonhowitrespondstosuchrequests.28.Inaddition,platformsshouldreportonsystemstheyhaveinplacethatwouldhelpablethemtoidentifythefollowingwhileprotectingtherighttoprivacyandanonymity:?28.1multipleaccountscreatedbythesamesource;?28.2[falseorinauthenticbehavioursthatpromotemis/disinformationorotherdamagingcontent]6;?28.3[syntheticcontentdesignedtomisleadorcreateafalseimpressionunlessclearlyidentifiedassuchforartisticorcreativepurposes)]7;?28.4theuseofautomatedprogrammesdesignedtomimicusers(bots);?28.5contentcreatedbyaccountsregisteredbystateactorsorotherwisecrediblydeterminedtobestate-affiliated.privacyyofcontentarisingfromsuchaccountsortoflagwithawarningthatthenatureofthiscontentcouldbemisleadingorotherwiseproblematic(similartosplashpagewarningsnowprovidedbybanksbeforeallowingtransactions).Thepurposefortheseprovisionsistoallowuserstounderstandthethemtomaketheirownjudgementastotheirprovenance.30.Finally,platformsshouldnotifyuserswhentheircontentisremovedorsubjecttocontentmoderation.Thiswillallowuserstounderstandthereasonsthatactionontheircontentwastaken,themethodused(algorithmicorafterhumanreview)andthatpermituserstoappealsuchdecisions.31.Anenablingenvironment.Thisguidancerecognisesthedifficultiesofidentifyingcontentthatispotentiallydamagingtodemocracyandhumanrights.Forexample,separatingmisinformation)fromdisinformation(iscomplex,bringingwithitdangers6Thisitemwashighlightedbydifferentstakeholdersconsultedasrequiringextrasafeguardsforthebalancingofrights,thereforewewouldappreciatedetailedcommentsonhowtoaddressthispoint.7Thisitemwashighlightedbydifferentstakeholdersconsultedasrequiringextrasafeguardsforthebalancingofrights,thereforewewouldappreciatedetailedcommentsonhowtoaddressthispoint.tofreeexpressionofsuppressingcontentlegitimatelyprotectedunderinternationalhumanrightslaw.31.1Platformsshouldshowwhattheydotoprovideanenablingenvironmentthatrnsofofflineconsequencestospeechthatmightbedangerous(e.g.,hatespeech)orsimplyflagsdifferentperspectivesoropinions.usersshouldbegiventheabilitytocontrolthecontentthatissuggestedtothemplatformsshouldconsiderwaystoencourageusers’controloverTheavailabilitytochoosebetweencontentrecommendationsystemsthatdisplaydifferentsourcesanddifferentviewpointsaroundtrendingtopicsshouldbemadeavailabletousersinonlineplatforms.32.Userreporting.Insupportingfreedomofexpressionandtheavailabilityofaccurateandreliableinformationinthepublicsphere,itiscriticaltoempowerusersofdigitalplatformservices.Inthisregard,all,companies,governments,civilsocietyorganisationsandacademicinstitutionshavearolltoplayCompaniesinparticular,inadditiontotheplatformprovidinginformationaboutitspoliciesaccessibleinadigestibleformatandinallrelevantlanguages,itshouldshowhowitallowsuserstoreportpotentialabusesofthepolicies,whetherthatbetheunnecessaryremovalofisinbreachofthepolicies.Wherepossible,usersshouldhaveaccesstoaplatformrepresentativeintheirowncountry.32.1Theuserreportingsystemshouldgivehighprioritytocontentthatisthreateningorintimidatory,particularlytogroupswithprotectedcharacteristics,ensuringarapidresponse8and,ifnecessary,byprovidingspecificmeansoffilingthereport.Thisisparticularlyimportantwhenittocomestogenderedonlineviolencethatwouldhelpidentifysystemicfailingsontheplatform.Atthesametime,thisguidancerecognisesthatmuchofthiswilldependuponlocalandregionalcontexts.32.2Thereshouldalsobeaneffectiveusercomplaintsmechanismtoallowusersmeaningfulopportunitiestoraiseissuesofconcern.Thisshouldincludeaclearand8Onemeancouldbethroughanescalationchannelforthemostegregiousthreats.understandablereportingchannelforcomplaintsandusersshouldbenotifiedabouttheresultoftheirappeal.32.3Therewillclearlybeissuesofscaleforplatformswithlargenumbersofusers.Insuchcircumstances,platformsmayneedtodeployautomatedsystemstoprocessandrecordcomplaintsandtheregulatorysystemwillreviewtheoperationofthesesystems.33.Contentthatpotentiallydamagesdemocracyandhumanrights,includingmis-andformationandhatespeech33.1Forplatformsandindependentregulators,attemptstoidentifypotentiallyegalcanbeasignificantchallengeasmostfreedomofexpressionlegalstandardsemphasisetheimportanceofcontextandintent–sayingthesamewordsindifferentcontextsandindifferentwayscanhaveverydifferentlegalimplications.Andsometimesapparentlylegalspeechwhichconstitutesdisinformationcanbedeployedwiththeintentofcausingsevereharm.Differentopinionsandviewpointsonthepotentialdamageposedbycontentwilllplatformswhichcanfeasiblybemanagedatleastinthefirstinstance,mainlyautomatically.PlatformsshouldsayhowtheydefineandrespondtoawidersetofdamagingessmentTheregulatorysystemshouldassessiftheirownstandards(includingtheprotectionoflegitimatespeech)whichshouldbealignedtointernationalhumanrightsstandards.33.3Thisguidancerecognisestheformidablechallengeofidentifyingdamagingspeechwhichmaybelegalinonecontextbutdamaginginanother.Forexample,itisimportanttodistinguishbetweencontentpromotinghatreddirectedatwomen,children,youth,LGBTTIQ,indigenousgroups,peoplewithdisabilityandvulnerableommunitiesandcontentthatissimplyoffensivetoaparticulargroupofpeopleinaparticularcontext.33.4Platformsshoulddemonstratehowtheywouldrespondtopotentiallydamagingspeech–eitherbyprovidingalternativereliableinformation,9flaggingingitsviralityoranyothermeansContentremovalorde-platformingofusersshouldbeconsideredonlywhentheintensity10,andseverity11ofcontentthathastheintentiontoharmagrouporindividualoccursTheplatformshouldalsobeexplicitaboutwhetheritpartnerswithoutsideorganizationsorexpertstohelpitmakethesekindsofdecisionsparticularlyincountriesorregionswheretheplatformitselfhaslittlelocalknowledge.33.5Platformsshouldshowwhethertheyapplyspecificprotectionmeasurestoparticulargroups.Iftheydo,thesemeasuresmightincluderiskassessmentandmitigationprocessesorthecreationofspecificproductsthatenablethesespecificgroupstoactivelyparticipateonline.34.Mediaandinformationliteracy.Platformsshouldsetouttheresourcestheymakeavailabletoimprovemediaandinformationliteracy,includingdigitalliteracyaboutthecompanyonhowtoimprovethedigitalliteracyofitsuserswiththoughtgiventothisinallproductdevelopmentteams.Theplatformshouldbereflectingonhowanyproductorserviceimpactsuponuserbehaviourandnotjustontheaimofuseracquisitionorengagement.specificmediaandinformationliteracymeasuresrwomenchildrenyouthandindigenousgroupsionintegrityskassessmentprocessforanyelectioneventandshouldengagewiththeelection’sadministrator/regulator(andrelevantcivilsocietygroups),ifonesuchexists,priortoandduringanelectionto9Severalmediaplatformshaveinstituted“disputednews”tagsthatwarnreadersandviewersaboutcontentiouscontent10Thefrequencyofoccurrenceoveragivenperiodandtheirrange.11Itsscale,scopeorirremediability.Scalemeansthegravityoftheimpactonthehumanright(s).Scopemeansthenumberofindividualsthatareorcouldbeaffected.