Argumentation(I)DevelopmentbyContrastTeachingprocedureAnintroductiontoargumentation1.Definitionofargumentation2.SixrequirementsforargumentationDevelopmentbycontrast1.Definition2.ExampleDefinitionofargumentationThepurposeofargumentationistoconvince:tryingtomakethereaderarguewithitspointofviewandsupportit,topersuadehimtochangehismindorbehavior,andtoapproveapolicyoracourseofactionthatitproposes.

Argumentationandexposition

Theyareverycloselyrelated—argumentationisactuallyexpositionwithadditionalpurposeofconvincingorpersuading.Sixrequirementsforargumentation1).AdebatablepointItisimperativethatthepapershouldhaveadebatablepoint,thatis,somethingwhichcanbeviewedmorethanoneangleandisthereforeopentodispute.

Comparethefollowingstatements:(1).Merestatementsoffactsa.Chinesedoctorsuseacupunctureanesthesiatoperformcertainoperations.

b.Acupunctureanesthesiashouldreplaceconventionalanesthesiainalloperations.Analysis:aisafactthatcannotbedebated.Ifaischangedintob,itbecomesdebatable.

(2).Statementsofpersonalpreference

a.BaJinismyfavorite.

b.BaJinisthegreatestChinesewriterofthe20thcentury.Analysis:aexpressespersonalpreferencewhichdoesnotleadtodispute.Butbisdisputableandsufficientevidenceshouldbeprovided.(3).Viewpointsthataregenerallyacceptedorcanbeeasilyverifieda.Noisepollutionisharmfultopeople’shealth.b.Noisepollutionisthemostharmfulofallenvironmentalpollution.Analysis:aisuniversallyknownandcanbeproved,butbisnotgenerallyaccepted,andsoitisarguable.2).Sufficientevidence

Sincethepointofyourpaperisnotafact,astatementofpersonaltaste,oraviewpointuniversallyaccepted,youwillhavetoprovidesufficientevidencetoconvincethereader.Sufficientevidenceincludescommonknowledge;specificexamples;hard,notsoft,evidence,facts,notopinions,unlesstheopinionsareexpertandauthoritative;statistics,andquotationsfromauthorities.Validevidenceisthatwhichisclearlyanddirectlyconnectedwiththepointtobeproved.

3).SoundlogicItisobviousthatsoundlogicisevenmoreimportanttoargumentationthantoanyothertypesofwriting.Allthefactsandreasonsthataregivenasevidenceshouldbelogicallyconnectedwiththeconclusionandwitheachother.Anyfallacyinlogicorwrongstepinreasoningwouldleavethereaderindoubtaboutthewholeargument.Therearegenerallytwowaysofreasoning:

(1)Inductivereasoning

Inductivereasoningisthemorecommonway.Whenyouuseinduction,youstartwithfactsandproceedfromfactstoageneralconclusion.Inotherwords,youmovefromspecificexamplestoageneralstatement.e.g.Specific:Thissupermarket-branditemischeaperthanitscomparablename-branditem.General:Eachoftheseotherseventeensupermarket-branditemsischeaperthanitscomparablename-branditem.Conclusion:Supermarket-branditemsarecheaperthancomparablename-branditems.(2)DeductivereasoningTheprocessisjusttheoppositeofinductivereasoning----itmovesfromageneralstatementtoaspecificconclusion.Itworksonthemodelofsyllogism-----athreepartargumentinwhichtherearetwostatements,knownasthemajorpremiseandtheminorpremise,andaconclusion.Hereisanexampleofasyllogism:Allhumanbeingsmakemistakes.Xisahumanbeing.Therefore,Xmakesmistakes.Youmustbeverycarefulaboutyourpremises,especiallyyourmajorpremise.Suchstatementsas“allstudentslovetostudy”and“womenaremoreimaginativethanmen”arenotgenerallyaccepted,andthereforecannotbeusedasmajorpremises.PleasepointoutthelogicmistakesinthefollowingtwoSyllogisms.a.Abortion,aformofmurder,iswrong.Allformsofmurderarewrong.Therefore,abortioniswrong.b.Allpropertyownersfavorreducedrealestatetaxes.Janetfavorsreducedrealestatetaxes.Therefore,Janetisapropertyowner.4).Goodorganization

Atypicalargumentativeessayconsistsofthreeparts:

Anintroductionwhichidentifiestheissuetobediscussedandexplainstheimportanceofsuchadiscussion

Abodywhichpresentstheevidence

Aconclusioninwhichtheproposition,ifitisstatedatthebeginning,isreaffirmed.

Theevidence

youprovideshouldbearranged:

A.fromtheleasttothemostimportant,

B.fromthemostfamiliartotheleastfamiliar;and

C.fromtheeasiesttoacceptorcomprehendtothemostdifficult

5).Gooduseofallotherthreetypesofwriting:

Description,narration,andespeciallythevariousmethodsofexposition:example,causeandeffect,definition,comparisonandcontrast,divisionandclassification.

6).Anhonestandfriendlyattitude

Toargueisnottoquarrel.Theforceofanargumentdoesnotcamefromabuse,sarcasm,exaggeration,orfierceattacks,butfromsolidevidence,logicalreasoning,andcarefulanalysis.Adomineeringorhostiletonecouldonlyraisedoubtsaboutyourgoodfaithandimpairthecredibilityofyourargument,whereasanhonestandfriendlyattitudewillhelpwinthetrustofyourreaders.

DevelopmentbycontrastDefinition

acontrastpointsoutthedifferencesbetween

twoormorepersonsorthingsofthesameclass.

Twowaysoforganizingpapersofcontrastblockcontrast:toexamineonethingthoroughlyandthenexaminetheother.Inthisway,theaspectsexaminedintwothingsshouldbeidenticalandinthesameorderalternatingcontrast:toexaminetwothingsatthesametime,discussingthempointbypointWhichwayisusedinthefollowingparagraph?Oppositesseemtoattract.Myfatheristall,blond,andoutgoing.Mymotherissmall,andevenherdarkbrownhair,whichisnaturallywavy,hasacertainquietreposeaboutit.Mydaddoeseverythingatacheerfulrun,whetherheisofftoasalesconferenceorofftothegolfcoursewithhisfoursomeonSaturdaymornings.Mymotherneverseemstohurry.Shehumsatherwork,andthehouseseemstoslipintoorderwithouteffort.Sheplaysbridgewithafewfriends,andbelongstoanumberoforganizations,butsheisjustashappywithabook.Whenmydadburstsinattheendoftheday,mymother’sfacelightsup.Theygrinateachother.Theyobviouslystillfindeachotherattractive.WordsandphrasesoftenusedinmakingcontrastUnlike,differfrom,while,differentfrom,whereas,incontrastto,however,inoppositionto,onthecontrary,nevertheless,ontheotherhand,otherwise,ontheoppositeside,but,although,despite,inspiteof,theformer…thelatter,here…there,then…now,this…that,some…othersUnit8TextB

SecondThoughtsonCloning1).PleasepointoutthetypeofwritingofTextB,andtrytogivetheevidencetosupportyouridea.2).Pleasepointoutthemainwayofdevelopingthetext,andtrytounderlinethewordsandphrasestheauthorusesinthetexttoshowtheway.3).Howdoestheauthorestablishtheauthority?4).Howdoestheauthormaketheconcessions?EstablishAuthorityTobeconvincedbythepersuasiveessay,thereadermustbelievethatthewriterisacrediblesource.Todothis,youcanquoteexpertsand/orshowthatyouhavereadwidelyaboutthesubjectbyreferringtoinformationgatheredfromscientificliteratureGlobalWarmingThereislittledoubtthattheplanetiswarming.Overthelastcentury,theplanet’stemperaturehasrisenbyaround1degreefahrenheit(0.6ofadegreecelsius).Thewarmestsincethemid1800’swasthe1990s.Thehottestyearsrecordedwere1997,1998,2001,2002,2003.MakingConcessionsIfyouarewritingapersuasivepiece,youneedtoconsidermakingconcessions.Rememberthataconcessionisnotaformofweakness.Infactaconcessionisastrengthasitfindscommongroundwithyouropponentandestablishesyourethicalappeal:youareareasonablepersonwillingtolistento/acknowledgethattherearemoresidestoanissuethanyoursEuthanasia:AnActofCompassionAdmittedly,deliverancefromendlesssufferingisthegreatestservicethatcanbeperformedbyahealer.Itistruethattheabilitytoenjoylifeandliveittothefullestischerishedbyall.Lifeisajourney,aneducationofsorts,ablendofjoyandsorrowbutnotaeulogyofpain.TextBLaurenceTribeusedtobeagainsthumancloning.However,thearrivalofDollythesheepledhimtohavesecondthoughtsonthematter.SecondThoughtsonCloning1).Someyearsago,longbeforehumancloningbecameanear-termprospect,Iwasamongthosewhourgedthathumancloningbeassessednotsimplyintermsofconcretecostsandbenefits,butintermsofwhatthetechnologymightdototheverymeaningofhumanreproduction,childrearingandindividuality.Ileanedtowardprohibitionasthesafestcourse.2).Today,withtheprospectofarenewedpushforsweepingprohibitionratherthanmereregulation,Iaminclinedtosay,“Notsofast.”3).WhenscientistsannouncedinFebruarythattheyhadcreatedacloneofanadultsheep---ageneticallyidenticalcopynamedDolly,createdinthelaboratoryfromasinglecellofthe“parent”---fiercedebatearoseovertheprosandconsoftryingtocloneahumanbeing.4).Peoplespokeoftheplightofinfertilecouples;thegriefofsomeonewhohaslostachildwhosebiological“rebirth”mightoffercomfort;theprospectofusingcloningtogeneratedonorsfortissuesandorgans;thepossibilityofcreatinggeneticallyenhancedcloneswithaparticulartalentoraresistancetosomedreaddisease.5).Butotherssawanightmarishanddecidedlyunnaturalinterferencewithhumanreproduction.Californiaenactedabanonhumancloning,andthePresident’sNationalBioethicsAdvisoryCommissionrecommendedmakingthebannationwide.6).Thatinitialdebatehascooled,however,andmanyinthescientificfieldnowseemtobewonderingwhatallthefusswasabout.7).Theyareaskingwhetherhumancloningisn’tjustasmallstepbeyondwhatwearealreadydoingwithartificialinsemination,invitrofertilization,fertilityenhancingdrugsandgeneticmanipulation.Thatcasualattitudeissuretogivewaybeforelongtoyetanotherwaveofprohibitionistoutrage---awavethatInolongerfeelcomfortableriding?8).Icertainlydon’tsubscribetotheviewthatwhatevertechnologypermitsustodoweoughttodo.NordoIsubscribetotheviewthattheConstitutionnecessarilyguaranteeseveryindividualtherighttoreproducethroughwhatevermeansbecometechnicallypossible.9).Rather,myconcernisthattheverydecisiontousethelawtocondemn,andthenoutlaw,patternsofhumanreproduction---especiallybyappealingtovaguenotionsofwhatis“natural”---isatleastasdangerousasthetechnologiessuchadecisionmightbeusedtocontrol.10).Humancloninghasbeencondemnedbysomeofitsmostarticulateopponentsastheultimateembodimentofthesexualrevolution,separatingsexfromthecreationofbabiesandtreatinggenderandsexualityassociallyconstructed.11).Buttobancloningasfurtheringwhatsomeseeasculturallydistressingtrendsmay,intheend,lendsupporttostrikinglysimilarobjectionstosurrogatemotherhood.12).Equallyscary,whenappealstothenatural,ortoreligiouslaws,leadtothecriminalizationofsomemethodforcreatinghumanbabies,wemustcometotermswiththeinevitable:theprohibitionwillnotbeairtight.13).Justaswastrueofbansonabortionandonsexoutsidemarriage,bansonhumancloningareboundtobehardtoenforce.Andthat,inturn,requiresustothinkintermsofaclassofpotentialoutcasts---peoplewhoseveryexistencesocietywillhavechosentolabelasamisfortuneand,inessence,tocondemn.14).Oneneedonlythinkofthelongstruggletoovercomethestigmaof“illegitimacy”forthechildrenofunmarriedparents.Howmuchworsemightbetheplightofbeingjudgedmorallyincompletebyvirtueofone’sman-madeorigin?15).Therearesomeblackmarkets(indrugs,forinstance)thatmaybewo