1、=WORD完好版-可編寫-專業(yè)資料分享=四、名詞解說(shuō)：Parole話語(yǔ)：itreferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.itistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.itisconcrete,referstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.itvariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.Appliedlinguistics應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)：findingsinlinguisticst

2、udiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsasrecoveryofspeechability.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisknownasappliedlinguistics.Reference（所指）語(yǔ)義:Itmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperien

3、ce.4)Illocutionaryact言外行為：theactofexpressingthespeakersintention,itactisthpreformedinsayingsomething.Regionaldialect地區(qū)方言：itisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.Ithasbeenfoundthatregionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithgeographicalbarrierssuchasmountains,riversandswamps

4、.LAD(LanguageAcquisitionDevice)語(yǔ)言習(xí)得體制：Itwasdescribedasanimaginaryblackboxexistingsomewhereinthehumanbrain.CA（ContrastiveAnalysis）對(duì)照剖析：startingwithdescribingcomparablefeaturesofthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguage,CAcomparestheformsandmeaningsacrossthesetwolanguagestolocatethemismatchesordifferences

5、sothatpeoplecanpredictthepossiblelearningdifficultylearnersmayencounter.Neurolinguistics（神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）：itisthestudyoftworelatedareas：languagedisordersandtherelationshipbetweenthebrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchintohowthebrainisstructuredandwhatfunctioneachpartofthebrainperforms,howandinwhichpartsofthebr

6、ainlanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage.Predicationanalysis述謂構(gòu)造剖析：ItisproposedbytheBritishLinguistG.Leech.Thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.10)Cr

7、oss-culturalcommunication(interculturalcommunication)跨文化溝通：itiscommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.Cross-association相互聯(lián)想：InEnglishwesometimesmaycomeacrosswordswhicharesimilarinmeaning.Theirspellingandpronunciationarealsoali

8、ke.Thecloseassociationofthetwoleadstoconfusion.Suchinterferenceisoftenreferredascross-association.CPH（CriticalPeriodHypothesis）臨界期假說(shuō)：aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.ThestrongversionofCPHsuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheir-完好版學(xué)習(xí)資料分享-=WORD完好版-可編寫-專業(yè)資料分享=firstlanguagebypubertyorthe

9、ywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.Theweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictorsandGeniescases)13)Prescriptive（grammer）規(guī)定語(yǔ)法：ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviourinusinglanguagetoellpeoplewhattheyshoulds

10、ayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Performance語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用；語(yǔ)言行為：theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Duality兩重性(doublearticulation)：languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Thelowerorbasiclevelisofsounds,whicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelcanbem

11、eaningful.五、問(wèn)答題：Chapter1Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage?Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butitstudieslanguagesingeneral.Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetoso

12、megeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem,thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehyp

13、othesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.6.HowisSaussuresdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomskysdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.th

14、eirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudyTheyaresimilarintwoaspects:thedefinitionandthecontentofstudy.Ononehand,Saussuredefineslangueastheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparoleastherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuserk

15、nowledgesoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Wecanseethatlangueandcompetencebothrefertotheabstractissue,conventionsandknowledge,andparoleandperformancebotharetheiractualrealization,theconcreteuse.Ontheotherhand,inSaussuresopinion,whatlin

16、guistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparoleasparoleistoovariedandconfusing.AndthisisthesameasChomsky.Hethinkslinguistsshouldstudytheidealspeakerscompetence,hisnotperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromap

17、sychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?Arbitrariness:thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthef

18、actthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguage.Productivity:Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionand-完好版學(xué)習(xí)資料分享-=WORD完好版-可編寫-專業(yè)資料分享=interpretationofnewsignalsofitsusers.Duality:languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerortheb

19、asiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Displacement:Languagecanbeusetorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfa

20、r-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5)Culturaltransmission:Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtonextthroughteachingandlearningratherthanbyinstinct.Chapter23.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?B

21、roadtranscriptiononelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscriptiondiacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbollisusedforthesoundl8.whatsaphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.T

22、hespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedont,e.g.bI:t&bIt,spIt&spIt.Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext

23、,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpIt,tIpandspIt.AllophonethephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsPhoneisdifferentfromphoneme,Thephoneme/l/canberealizedasdark/l-/andclear/l/,whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/Chapter51.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeanin

24、g?1)Thenamingtheory命名論wasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor;wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Thesemanticrelationshipholdingbetweenwordsandthingsistherelationshipofnaming.Theconceptualistvi

25、ew觀點(diǎn)論:Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ThisisbestillustratedbythesemantictrianglesuggestedbyOgdenandRichards:Contextualism語(yǔ)境論:RepresentativelyproposedbytheBritishlinguist

26、J.R.FirthwhohadbeeninfluencedbythePolishanthropologistMalinowskiandtheGermanphilosopher-完好版學(xué)習(xí)資料分享-=WORD完好版-可編寫-專業(yè)資料分享=Wittgenstein.Itholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context-elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage.Behaviourism行為主義論:Basedo

27、ncontextualistviewbyBloomfieldwhodrewonbehavioristpsychologyindefining“meaning”Behaviorists.attemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguagefromasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.6.Inwhatwayis

28、componentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?成分剖析和把音位剖析為差別性特點(diǎn)有何相像之處？Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures,theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures;itisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmean

29、ingsimilarly,aphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeatures,aphonemecanbebrokendownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditsthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds.Chapter65.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample.Accor

30、dingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressing

31、thespeakersintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Letslookatanexample:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactperformedbythe

32、speakerishisutteranceofthewords“you”“,have”,“door“”,open”,etc.thusexpressingwhatthewordsliterallymean.-完好版學(xué)習(xí)資料分享-=WORD完好版-可編寫-專業(yè)資料分享=Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor,ormakingacomplaint,dependingo

33、nthecontext.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearergetsthespeakersmessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstotellhimtoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutionaryactissuccessfullyperformed.8.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP

34、?Trytogiveyourownexamplestoshowhowfloutingthesemaximsgivesrisetoconversationalimplicature?答：CooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Tobemorespeci

35、fic,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:(1)Themaximofquantity數(shù)目原則E.g.A:WhenisSusansfarewellparty?Sometimesnextmonth.ItisfloutingthemaximofquantityThemaximofquality質(zhì)量原則E.g.A:WouldyouliketojoinusforthepicniconSunday?ImafraidIhavegotaclassonSunday.Themaximofrelation有關(guān)原則E.g.A:Howdidthemathexamgo

36、today,Tom?Wehadabasketballmatchwiththeotherclass.Themaximofmanner方式準(zhǔn)則E.g.A:Shallwegotsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Chapter9WhatdoyouthinkofSapir-Whorfhypothesis?Giveexamplesorprooftosupportyourpointofview.Sapir-Whorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeoplesperceptionandthewaytheycategori

37、zetheirexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.TherearemainlytwodifferentinterpretationsaboutSapir-WhorfHypothesis:astrongversionandaweakone.Thestrongversionbelievesthatlanguagepatternsdeterminepeoplesthinkingandbehavior,theweakoneholdsthattheformerinflue

38、ncesthelater.Iagreewiththeweakone.Hereisanexample,thewordsnow.ForEskimosnowisextremelyimportantandsocrucialtolifethateachofitsvariousformsandconditionsisnamed.In-完好版學(xué)習(xí)資料分享-=WORD完好版-可編寫-專業(yè)資料分享=English-speakingcultures,snowisfarlessimportantandsimplewordsnowusuallysufficestheneed.Whensomeneedsbecomemo

39、respecific,however,longerphrasescanbemadeuptomeettheseneeds:“cornsnow”,“finepowdersnow”,and“driftingsnow”.Chapter10Amongthelanguageacquisitiontheoriesmentionedinthischapter,whichonedoyouthinkismorereasonableandconvincing?Explainwhy.Behaviouristview-languageisbehavior,languagelearningissimplyamattero

40、fimitationandhabitformation.Inthistheory,imitationandpracticearepreliminary(開始),discrimination（辨別）andgeneralizaitionarekeytolanguagedevelopment.2)Aninnatist(語(yǔ)法天生主義者)view-Inthehumanbrain,thereisanimaginary“blackbox”calledLanguageacquisitiondevicewhichissaidtocontainprinciplesthatareuniversaltoalllang

41、uage.ChildrenneedaccesstothesamplesofanaturallanguagetoactivatetheLAD,whichenablesthemtodiscoverhislanguagesstructurebymatchingtheinnateknowledgeofbasicgrammaticalsystemtothatparticularlanguage.laterChomskypreferthisinnateendowmentasUGandholdthatifchildrenarepre-equippedwithUG,thenwhattheyhavetolear

42、nisthewaysinwhichtheirownlanguagemakeuseoftheseprinciplesandthevariationsinthoseprincipleswhichmayexistintheparticularlanguagetheyarelearning.Aninteractionist(互動(dòng)主義者)view-languagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplay,betweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichchilddevelops.Inawo

43、rd,Behavioristsviewsoundsreasonableinexplainingtheroutineaspects,theinnatistaccountsmostreasonableinexplainingchildrensacquiringcomplexsystem,andtheinteractionistdescriptionconvincinginunderstandinghowchildrenlearnandusethelanguageappropriatelyfromtheirenvironment.Chapter111、Towhatextentissecondlanguagelearningsimilartofirstlanguagelearning?Canyoulistsomeprooffromyourownlearningexperience?(pleaselistyourownexperience.)Thestudiesonthefirstlanguageacquisitionhaveinfluencedenormouslythoseonthesecondlanguageacquisitionatboththeoreticalandpraticallevels.Theoreticallythenewfindingsanda