Unit 15TypesofConstructionProjectText Constructionintersectsalmostallfieldsofhumanendeavor，andthisdiversityisreflectedinitsprojects.Designersofhospitalsinteractcloselywithmedicalprofessionalstoservetheneedsofpatientsbest.Educationalphilosophiesandpracticestakeshapeinthearchitectureofschoolsandcolleges，whilegovernmentsandcorporationsexpresstheir“images”withstructuresthathousetheirofficesandproductionfacilities①.Thedesignandconstructionofrefineries，factories，andpowerplantsgenerallyrequirethatthebuildersbemoreknowledgeableoftherelatedindustrialtechnologiesthanthemanufacturesandutilitiesthatoperatethem.Buildersofdams，tunnels，bridges，andothercivilengineeringstodaymustbegeologists，ecologists，andsociologistsaswellasarchitects，engineers，andmanagers.Andmostofusrecognizehowintimatelythedesignandqualityofourbuildingenvironmenteitherenhanceorfrustrateourpersonallives. Itisdifficult，ifnotimpossible，tocategorizeneatlysogreataspectrumofprojects.Theexceptions，theonesthattranscendtheboundaries，oftenseemtooutnumberthosethatareclearlyrecognizable.Whatfollows，nevertheless，arefoursomewhatarbitrarybutgenerallyacceptedmajortypesofconstruction.Inlargemeasure，thesecategoriesparallelthegeneralspecialtiesintowhichdesignersandconstructorstendtogroupthemselves②.TextResidentialHousingConstruction Residentialhousingconstructionincludessingle-familyhomes，multiunittownhouses，gardenapartments，high-riseapartmentsandcondominiums.Thelater，inparticular，aretechnologicallylesscloselyrelatedtoresidencesthantothefollowingdescriptionofnonresidentialbuildingconstructionandaresometimesincorporatedaspartofmultipurposecommercialdevelopments.Theyareclassifiedherefromtheusers’pointofview. Residentialhousingconstructionaccountsforabout30to35percentofconstructionexpendituresinanaverageyear.Althoughlargelyfinancedbytheprivatesector，thesupplyanddemandforresidentialconstructionisheavilyimpactedbygovernmentalregulationandfiscalpolicy.Thereareafewverylargefirms，butasarulethelowcapitalandtechnologyrequirementsinthissectoroftheindustrymeansthatitischaracterizedbylargequantitiesofverysmallfirms③.Demandinstability，amongotherthings，causesahighrateofbusinessfailuresamongthem.Designsaregenerallydonebyeitherarchitects，homedesignersorthebuildersthemselves，andconstructionisusuallyhandledbyeitherindependentcontractorsordeveloper-builders.Whetherinsingleunitsorinlargedevelopments，however，therehasbeenasmallbutgrowingtrendtowardindustrializationandfactorymassproductionofsomemajorcomponentsinrecentdecade，andevencompletemodularhomes.Text OfficeandCommercialBuildingConstruction Officeandcommercialbuildingconstructionencompassesagreatvarietyofprojecttypesandsizes，suchasschoolsanduniversities，medicalclinicsandhospitals，recreationalfacilitiesandsportsstadiums，retailchainstoresandlargeshoppingcenters，warehousesandlightmanufacturingplants，andskyscrapersforofficesandhotels.Thissectortypicallyaccountsfor35to40percentoftheconstructionmarket.Theownersofsuchbuildingsmayormaynotbefamiliarwithconstructionindustrypractices，buttheyusuallyareabletoselectcompetentprofessionalconsultantsandarrangethefinancingoftheconstructedfacilitiesthemselves.Specialtyarchitectsandengineersareoftenengagedfordesigningaspecifictypeofbuilding，whilethebuildersorgeneralcontractorsundertakingsuchprojectsmayalsobespecializedinonlythattypeofbuilding. Thoughlabor-and-materials-intensivelikeresidentialconstruction，thescopeandtechnologyofThesebuildingsaregenerallymuchlargerandmorecomplex④.Becauseofthehighercostsandgreatersophisticationofofficeandcommercialbuildingsincomparisonwithresidentialhousing，thismarketsegmentissharedbyfewercompetitors.Sincetheconstructionofsomeofthesebuildingsarealongprocesswhichoncestartedwilltakesometimetoproceeduntilcompletion，thedemandislesssensitivetogeneraleconomicconditionsthanthatforspeculativehousing.Consequently，theownersmayconfrontanoligopolyofgeneralcontractorswhocompeteinthesamemarket.Inanoligopolysituation，onlyalimitednumberofcompetitorsexist，andafirm’spriceforservicesmaybebasedinpartonitscompetitivestrategiesinthelocalmarket.TextHeavyEngineeringConstruction Thoughaccountingonlyfor20to25percentofthemarket，heavyengineeringconstructionincludesmanyofthestructuresforwhichtheindustryisbestknown.Damsandtunnelsprovidehydroelectricpower，floodcontrol，andirrigation；bridgesrangefromfootpathstointernationallyfamouslandmarkssuchasspaningSanFrancisco’sGoldenGate；Othertransportationstructuresincludeinterstaterailways，airports，highways，andurbanrapidtransitsystems；portsandharborstructuresfallintothiscategory，asdomanyofthoseinthedeepopensea.Pipelinesareincludedhere，asaresomeofourmoreutilitarianstructures，suchaswatertreatmentanddistributionsystems，sewageandstormwatercollection，treatmentanddisposalsystems，powerlines，andcommunicationnetworks. Boththedesignandconstructionphasesofheavyconstructionareprimarilythedomainofcivilengineers，thoughalmostalldisciplinesplayimportantroles.Theconstructionphaseismuchmoreequipment-intensive，characterizedbyfleetsoflargeearthmovers，cranes，andtrucks，workingwithmassivequantitiesofbasicmaterialssuchasearth，rock，steel，concrete，timber，andpipe.Anothermajordistinctionisthatmany，ifnotmost，heavyconstructionprojectsarepubliclyfinanced，andthisfactinturnlimitsotheralternativecontractualarrangementsinthissector.TextTypically，designisdoneeitherby，orundercontractwith，apublicagency，andconstructionisbycompetitiveopenbidding.Constructioncontractorshereusuallyrequiremuchgreaterexpertiseinengineeringandgeologythantothoseinofficeandcommercialbuildingandresidentialhousingconstruction.IndustrialConstruction Industrialconstructionrepresentsonlyabout5to10percentofthemarket，butithassomeofthelargestprojectsandisdominatedbysomeofthelargestengineeringandconstructionfirms.Theseprojectsincludepetroleumrefineriesandpetrochemicalplants；syntheticfuelplants；fossil-fuelandnuclearpowerplants；minedevelopments，smelters，steelmills，andaluminumplants；largeheavy-manufacturingplants；andotherfacilitiesessentialtoourutilitiesandbasicindustries. Bothdesignandconstructionrequirethehighestlevelsofengineeringexpertise，fromnotonlycivilengineering，butalsochemical，electrical，mechanical，andotherdisciplines，andtypicallyallphaseoftheprojectarehandledbythesamefirmonanegotiateddesign-constructor“turnkey”contractualarrangement，withconsiderableoverlapbetweendesign，procurement，andconstruction⑤.ThedesignersandconstructorsmustbeintimatelyfamiliarwiththetechnologiesandTextoperationsofthefacilityfromtheowner’spointofview，andoftentheyholdsomeofthekeypatentsforadvancedprocesstechnologiesneededtherein.Inthewesternfree-enterprisecountries，mostoftheseindustrialconstructionsareprivatelyfinanced. Incontrastwiththebasicmaterialscharacteristicofheavyengineeringconstructionthemajorfactorsinindustrialconstructiongenerallyconsistoflargeamountsofhighlycomplexmechanical，electrical，processpiping，andinstrumentationwork.Thisworktendstobemuchmorelabor-intensive，thoughsomeofthelargesthoistingandmaterials-handlingequipmentsarealsorequired.NewWordsandPhrasesintersectvi.相交，交叉，橫斷takeshape成形，形成，具體化，體現(xiàn)refineryn.精煉廠，煉制廠intimatelyadv.密切地transcendvt.超越，勝過(guò)inlargemeasure在很大程度上，大部分high-risen.高樓，大廈；adj.高層的condominiumn.共管，共有房產(chǎn)townhouse（居住在鄉(xiāng)間者的）市內(nèi)住宅，城內(nèi)住宅field-labor-intensive現(xiàn)場(chǎng)勞動(dòng)力密集型的accountfor占，說(shuō)明fiscaladj.財(cái)政的skyscrapern.摩天大樓sophisticationn.老于世故，老練；復(fù)雜oligopolyn.壟斷，求過(guò)于供（的市場(chǎng)情況）footpathn.人行道，小路pipelinen.管道，管線earthmovern.重型推土機(jī)NewWordsandPhrasescranen.起重機(jī)fosil-fueln.礦物燃料smeltern.熔爐，熔煉工procurementn.獲得，取得speculativeadj.推測(cè)的，純理論的，投機(jī)的hoistn.升起，提升間Notes（1）whilegovernmentsandcorporationsexpresstheir“images”withstructuresthathouseTheirofficesandproductionfacilities. 而政府與企業(yè)則以容納其辦公或生產(chǎn)的建筑物來(lái)體現(xiàn)他們的形象。（2）Whatfollows，nevertheless，arefoursomewhatarbitrarybutgenerallyacceptedmajortypesofconstruction.Inlargemeasure，thesecategoriesparallelthegeneralspecialtiesintowhichdesignersandconstructorstendtogroupthemselves. 不過(guò)，以下就是劃分的四種主要的建筑類型，如此的劃分帶有一定程度的武斷性，但通常被人們接受。如此分類在很大程度上與設(shè)計(jì)者和建造者們通常使用的分類是一致的。（3）Thereareafewverylargefirms，butasarulethelowcapitalandtechnologyrequirementsinThissectoroftheindustrymeansthatitischaracterizedbylargequantitiesofverysmallfirms. 住宅建筑領(lǐng)域有不少大型企業(yè)，但由于該行業(yè)對(duì)于資本和技術(shù)的要求一般較低，所以占主導(dǎo)地位的還是大量的小型企業(yè)。 句中的asarule為“通?！?、“一般”的意思。Notes（4）Thoughlabor-and-materials-intensivelikeresidentialconstruction，thescopeandtechnologyOfthesebuildingsaregenerallymuchlargerandmorecomplex. 雖然它們和住宅類建筑一樣，也是勞動(dòng)力與材料密集型，但是此類項(xiàng)目范圍更廣，所包含的技術(shù)更復(fù)雜。 句中的labor-and-materials-intensive為“勞動(dòng)力與材料密集型”的意思。Muchlarger與Morecomplex分別對(duì)應(yīng)前面的thescope與technology.（5）Typicallyallphaseoftheprojectarehandledbythesamefirmonanegotiateddesign-constructor“turnkey”contractualarrangement，withconsiderableoverlapamongdesign，procurement，andconstruction. （工業(yè)建筑）項(xiàng)目各階段的工作一般依據(jù)設(shè)計(jì)建造或交鑰匙合同由同一家企業(yè)來(lái)承擔(dān)，因而其設(shè)計(jì)、采購(gòu)與施工等各階段工作之間存在相當(dāng)大的工作聯(lián)系。 “turnkey”contractualarrangement，交鑰匙合同方式，即工程項(xiàng)目建設(shè)的全過(guò)程，包括設(shè)計(jì)、采購(gòu)、施工、運(yùn)行試驗(yàn)