Chapter1cultureThenatureofculture:cultureislikeanicebergcultureisoursoftwarecultureislikethewaterafishswimsincultureisthegrammarofourbehaviorCharacteristicsofculture:cultureislearned(throughproverbs,folklore,art,massmedia)cultureisdynamic動態(tài)的cultureispervasive普遍的cultureisintegrated綜合的cultureisadaptiveCulturalidentity文化認同culturalidentitydefinedformationofculturalidentity(unexamined,search,achievement)characteristicsofculturalidentityCultureswithinculturesubculture亞文化群Co-culture共文化Sub-group亞群體SummaryManyofustakeourcultureforgranted.Theonlytimewhenwemayeverthinkaboutitiswhenweleaveourowncountrytotravelabroadorwhenweencountersomeonewithaculturesodifferentfromoursthatwehavetoexamineourownbeliefs.Muchofwhatwethinkistheorwaytoactordosomethingisactuallypartoftheknowledgethatwehavelearnedfromourculture.Cultureisalargeandinclusiveconcept.Thefirstdefinitionofculture,bytheEnglishanthropologistEdwardB.Tylor,involvesknowledge,belief,art,morals,law,customsandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.Althoughthisdefinitionhastriedtocovermoreaspectsthatmaydirecthumanbehavior,moreinclusivedefinitionscontinuetocomeintobeing.However,inthisbook,cultureisdefinedfromtheinterculturalcommunicationperspective:cultureisthedepositofknowledge,experience,beliefs,values,actions,attitudes,hierarchies,religions,notionsoftime,roles,spatialrelations,conceptsoftheuniverse,andartifactsacquiredbyagroupofpeopleinthecourseofgenerationsthroughindividualandgroupstriving.Comparedwiththedifferentideasonwhatcultureis,scholarsagreeonthecharacteristicsofculture.Generallyspeaking,cultureislearned,dynamic,pervasive,integratedandadaptive.Culturalidentityreferstoone'ssenseofbelongingtoaparticularcultureorethnicgroup.Peopleidentifywithbeingamemberofagroup.Beingamemberofagrouphelpstodefinewhoweare.Weareallmembersofgroupsofdifferentsizes.Oneofthelargestgroupsthatapersoncanbelongtoisaculture.Everyonebelongstoaculture.Othergroupsthatpeoplemaybeamemberofaresubcultures(alsocalledcoculture)andsubgroups.Subculturesexistwithindominantculture,andareoftenbasedoneconomicorsocialclass,ethnicity,race,orgeographicregion.Co-culturereferstogroupsorsocialcommunitiesexh女口tingcommunicationcharacteristics,perceptions,values,beliefs,andpracticesthataresignificantlydifferentenoughtodistinguishthemfromtheothergroups,communities,andthedominantculture.Subgroupsusuallydonotinvolvethesamelargenumberofpeopleandarenotnecessarilythoughtofasaccumulatingvaluesandpatternsofbehaviorovergenerationsinthesamewayasculturesdo.Subgroupscanbeassmallasafewpeopleoraslargeasamajorreligion.Subgroupsprovidetheirmemberswithnormsthattellpeoplehowtobehaveandthink.SubgroupscanbeconsideredChapter2interculturalcommunicationCommunicationcommunicationdefinedcomponents(組成)ofcommunication(sender/message/encoding/channel/receiver/decoding編碼/feedback/noise/context)Characteristicsofcommunicationcommunicationisdynamiccommunicationissystematiccommunicationissymbolic象征的communicationisirreversible不可逆的communicationistransactional相互作用的communicationisself-reflective自我反思的communicationiscontextual前后關(guān)系的CultureandcommunicationCultureandcommunication,althoughtwodifferentconcepts,aredirectlylinked.Theyaresoinextricablyboundthatsomeanthropologistsbelievethetermsarevirtuallysynonymous.Wheneverpeopleinteract,theycommunicate.Cultureislearned,actedout,transmitted,andpreservedthroughcommunication.Althoughtheconceptsofcommunicationandcultureworktogether,weseparatethemhereforpurposesofourdiscussion,webeginbyexaminingrecognizetheroleofcommunicationinthatprocess.Culturesinherentlycontaincommunicationsystems.Communicationandcultureareinseparable.Oneimplicationofthisinsightisthatculturesgeneratesymbols,rituals,customs,andformats.Touseasimpleexample,everyculturehasrulesforachievementandattainment.InWesternculture,thesymbolsincludedegrees,promotions,certificates,materialobjects,technology,andothersymbolsofmaterialwealth.However,nationalsinruralBotswanatakeprideintheprimarygroupandnotjustindividualattainment.Culturalmisunderstandingoccurswhenwefailtomatchtheappropriatesymbolsandgeneralcommunicationsystemtotheculture.Justwitnesstheawkwardnessofanexpatriatewhoattendsagatheringinahostculture,butfailstoweartheappropriateclothes.Onecannotescapethisinseparabilityofcultureandcommunication.Eachcultureencouragesaparticularcommunicationstyleexpectedwithinit.Thisimpliesnotonlyusingcorrectsymbols,butalsoapplyingtheappropriatecommunicationstylefortheoccasion.Communicationstylesincludemannerisms,phrases,rituals,andcommunicationcustomsappropriateforvarioussituationsinaculture.Forinstance,inSaudiArabiathecorrectinterpersonalcommunicationstyleuponmeetingone'shostisoftenlanguageloadedwithcomplimentsandthanks.Publiccriticismoffellowworkersinthiscultureisrare,forsuchamessagewouldappeardisrespectful.SomeWestAfricansexhibitafriendlyandwarminterpersonalcommunicationstyle.SomeAsiansaredescribedasconsciousofpropriety,ceremony,andrulesofrespectandhonor.SomeU.S.culturemembersappearinformalanduninhibitedSomeBritonsdisplayareservedmanner,preferringunderstatementandcontrolininterpersonalinteraction.Theseexamplesremindusoftheimportanceofunderstandinginterculturalcommunicationstyle.Areaslikeloudness,pitch,rate,andcertainstancesandgesturescharacterizeinterprettheAmericantobeangry.Interculturalcommunicationinterculturalcommunicationdefinedformsofinterculturalcommunication(internationalcommunication/interracialcommunication跨人種/interethniccommunication跨種族/intraculturalcommunication同一文化內(nèi))SummaryCommunicationisanelementofculture.Itisbelievedthateveryculturalpatternandeverysingleactofsocialbehaviorinvolvescommunication.Whenababyisjustborn,heusuallycries.Hiscryingcommunicatessomething.Whenseestheredlight,he/shewillstop.Allthesearecasesofcommunication.CommunicationisderivedfromtheLatinwordcommunicate,meaningtosharewithortomakecommon,asingivingtoanotherpartorshareofyourthoughts,hopes,andknowledge.differentperspectives.Infact,thewaythatpeopleviewcommunication-whatitis,howtodoit,andreasonsfordoingit-ispartoftheirculture.Westerncultureemphasizestheinstrumentalfunctionofcommunicationandthepriorconsiderationistoachievethesender'spersonalgoal,whileinEasternculture,inadditiontosendingandreceivingmessagessimultaneously,communicatorstaketheirrelationshipintoaccount.Theprocessofcommunicationhasninecomponents:sender/source,message,encoding,channel,receiver,decoding,feedback,noiseandcontext.Thesenderencodesamessage(informationthatthesenderwantstosharewithotherpeople)byputtingitintosymbols(usuallywordsornonverbalgestures)andthensendingitthroughachannel.Achannelcanbeprintedmediasuchasmagazinesandnewspapers;electronicmediasuchastelevision,radio,andtheInternet;orsoundstravelingthroughtheairwhentwopeoplespeakfacetoface.Sometimes,itisdifficultforthemessagetoreachthereceiver.Thedifficultyunderstandit.Forexample,ifthesenderencodesamessageusingEnglish,thereceivermustusetheirknowledgeofEnglishlanguagetounderstandit.Often,thesenderpaysattentiontothefeedbackofthereceiver.Thecommunicationtakesplacewithinasettingorsituationcalledcontext.Anycommunicationprocessdemonstratesseveralcharacteristics,thatis,dynamic,systematic,symbolic,irreversible,transactional,self-reflectiveandcontextual.Whencommunicatingwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures,itisimportanttorememberthatcultureandcommunicationarestronglyconnected.Cultureisacodewelearnandshare,andlearningandsharingrequirecommunication.Interculturalcommunicationreferstocommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionandsymbolsystemaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.Interculturalcommunicationasatermwasfirstusedin1959byEdwardT.Hall—anAmericananthropologist.Interculturalcommunicationincludesinternationalcommunication,interracialcommunication,interethniccommurucat10nandintraculturalcommunication.Chapter4barriersEmotionalproblemsasbarriersanxietyanduncertainty(definition/strategiestoovercome)assumingsimilarityinsteadofdifference假想相同點多于不同點Attitudinalproblemsasbarriersethnocentrism種族或民族中心主義(defined/variousforms)stereotyping(definition/categories)prejudiceracismreasonsforthepersistenceofethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudiceandracism(socialization社交化/socialbenefits/economicbenefits/psychologicalbenefits)Translationproblemsaslanguagebarrierslackofvocabularyequivalencelackofidiomaticequivalencelackofgrammatical-syntacticalequivalencelackofexperientialequivalence經(jīng)驗lackofconceptualequivalence概念SummaryThereareseveralbarrierstointerculturalcommunication—anxietyanduncertainty,assumingsimilarityinsteadofdifference,ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudice,racismandtranslationproblems.Anxietyanduncertainty,aswellasassumingsimilarityinsteadofdifferencebelongtotheemotionalproblems.Anxietyoccursbecauseofnotknowingwhatoneisexpectedtodo,andfocusingonthatfeelingandnotbeingtotallypresentinthecommunicationtransaction.Anxietymayalsoaffectyourabilitytocommunicateyourideastoothers,foryoupaytoomuchattentiontoyouruncomfortablefeelings.Uncertaintyreferstoourcognitiveinabilitytoexplainourownorother'sfeelingsandbehaviorsininteractionsbecauseofanambiguoussituationthatevokesanxiety.Assumingsimilarityinsteadofdifferenceisanaturalthingtodoifyoudonothaveanyinformationaboutaculture.Itreferstotheideathatpeoplecomingfromanotherculturearemoresimilartoyouthantheyactuallyareorthatanotherperson'ssituationismoresimilartoyoursthanitinfactis.AssumingthatacultureissimilartoyourowncancauseyoutoignoreimportantdifferencesThisassumptionalwaysleadstodisruptedcommunicationandevenconflict.Ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudiceandracismbelongtotheattitudinalproblemsEthnocentrismisnegativelyjudginganotherculturebyyourownculture'sstandards.Tomakeethnocentricjudgmentsistobelievethatthewaysofyourownculturearebetterthanthoseofothers.Stereotypingisusedtorefertonegativeorpositivejudgmentsmadeaboutindividualsbasedonanyobservableorbelievedgroupmembership.Itassumesthatapersonhascertainqualities(goodorbad)justbecausethepersonisamemberofaspecificgroup.Prejudicereferstotheirrationaldislike,suspicionorhatredofaparticulargroup,race,religion,orsexualorientation.Prejudicedattitudescantakemanyforms.Aspecifickindofprejudice,racismreferstoanypolicy,practice,belief,orattitudethatattributescharacteristicsorstatustoindividualsbasedontheirrace.Racisminvolvesnotonlyprejudice,butalsotheexerciseofpoweroverindividualsbasedontheirrace.Ethnocentrism,stereotyping,prejudice,racismcontinuetoexistbecauseofsocializationandtheapparentsocial,economic,andpsychologicalbenefitsthatcomefromit.Duetolanguagedifferencesandculturaldifferences,translationcanbecomeabarriertointerculturalcommunication.Fiveelementsthattypicallycauseproblemsintranslationarethelackofequivalencesinvocabulary,idioms,grammarandsyntax,experiences,andconcepts.Chapter5verbalcommunicationSignificanceofverbalcommunicationofverbalcommunication.Therefore,verbalinterculturalcommunicationhappenswhenpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundscommunicatewitheachotherbyusinglanguage.LanguageandculturelanguageasareflectionoftheenvironmentlanguageasareflectionofvaluesthemeaningofwordsVerbalcommunicationstylesdirectandindirectstylesself-enhancementandself-effacementstyles宣揚和謙遜elaborate,exactingandsuccinctstyles詳盡的，確切的，簡潔的personalandcontextualstyles不同的稱呼方式根據(jù)場合和地位instrumentalandaffectivestyles理性與感性Languagediversity1.dialectsandsociolects方言和社會方言2.pidginandlinguafranca洋涇浜語（漢語中夾雜外語），混合語（母語不互通）tabooandeuphemism禁用語委婉語jargon行話Culturalinfluenceonwrittencommunication1.directplan2.indirectplanSummaryVerbalinterculturalcommunicationhappenswhenpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundscommunicatewitheachotherbyusinglanguage.Itisagreedthatlanguagehelpsincommunicatingwithpeoplefromdifferentbackgrounds.However,peoplemaybelessawarethatculturalliteracyisnecessaryinordertounderstandthelanguagebeingused.Wordsinthemselvesdonotcarrythemeaning.Themeaningcomesoutofthecontext.Althoughpeopleusethedictionarytoexplainonelanguagewithanotherlanguage,wordsofdifferentlanguagesdon'tmeanthesamethingbecauseoftheculturalinfluenceonwordmeaning.Therearemainlyfiveverbalcommunicationstylesintroducedinthischapter:direct/indirect;self-enhancement/self-effacement;elaborate/exacting/succinct;personal/contextual;andinstrumental/affective.Languageisaculturalphenomenonwhichisusedtoexpressdifferentusesandtocommunicatedifferentmeanings.Languagevariesaccordingtothecommunicativeusesbutalsoaccordingtotheusers.Infact,usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferentlyandthekindoflanguageeachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbytheirculturalbackground.Inshort,somelanguagevariationsresultfromthelanguageuser,thatis,hisorhergeographicalorigin(dialect),orhisorhersocialcondition(sociolect).However,somelanguagevariationsresultfromthecircumstancesofcommunication,suchaspidgin,LinguaFranca,jargon,tabooandeuphemism.Dialectreferstogeographicalvariation,whilesociolectreferstovariationintermsofsocialclassorstyle.Pidginreferstoamixedlanguagethatisusedfortradingpurposes,whileLinguaFrancareferstoaspecificlanguagethatisusedasaninternationalmeansofcommunication.Tabooreferstoexpressionsthatareconsideredimpolite,whileeuphemismreferstopoliteexpressionsusedtosoftentheoffensiveanddisturbinglanguage.Jargonreferstoaspecialortechnicalvocabularythatisdevelopedforprofessionalpurposeswithinprofessionalgroupslikemedicineorlaw.Furthermore,verbalcommunicationinvolvesbothoralandwrittenforms.Writtencommunicationisespeciallyimportantininterculturalbusinesscommunication.Asthemodemtechnologicalrenovation(e-mailandecommerce)callsforthewrittencommunicationinbusiness,businessmenshouldbemoreconsciousaboutthewrittencommunicationbecausemistakesmadeinwrittenformaremoreseriousandpermanent.Culturalpatternsinfluencenotonlyoralcommunicationbutalsowrittencommunication.Culturalimpactondiscoursepatternsistobeclassifiedintotwocategories:directplanandindirectplan.Indirectplans,clarityandconcisenessareessentialtoasuccessfulbusinesswritingstyle.Theindirectplanhasotherprioritiesthanthequickdeliveryofideas,suchasnurturingarelationshipordevelopingsomeothercontextforthemessage.Directplanisfavoredbyresults-orientedculturesIndirectplanisfavoredbyrelationship-orientedculture.Chapter6nonverbalSignificanceofnonverbalcommunicationnonverbalbehavioraccountsformuchofthemeaningwegetfromconversations.nonverbalbehaviorissignificantbecauseitspontaneously<Dreflectsthesubconsciousness.Nonverbalcommunicationissignificantisthatwecannotavoidcommunicating.Definitionandfunctionsofnonverbalcommunication1.definitionofnonverbalcommunication2.functionsofnonverbalcommunication（repeating重復(fù)/complementing補充/substituting代替/regulating/contradicting反對）Paralanguageandsilenceparalanguage副語言（語音語調(diào)）silenceTimeandspacechronemics時間行為學的proxemics人際距離學（fixedfeaturesofspace/semifixedfeaturesofspace/personalspace包括四種情況下的不同距離）Othercategoriesofnonverbalcommunicationoculesics目光語olfactics嗅覺haptics觸覺kinesics人體動作學（gestures/posture/facealpressions/chromati色彩/attire打扮）SummaryWhenwelearntocommunicate,welearnnotonlylanguagebutalsovariouswaysofcommunicating.Communicatorsusebothverbalandnonverbalcodestocommunicate,listenersexpecttoreceivebothkindsofmessagesduringaconversation.Ifaspeakerusesnonverbalcodespoorlyorinappropriately,alistenermayconsiderthepersonapoorspeaker.However,misunderstandingsmayoccurwhenthespeakersandlistenersarefromdifferentculturesanddonotsharethesamenonverbalcodes.Inbrief,themessagessentwithoutusingwordsarecallednonverbalcommunication.Nonverbalcommunicationinvolvesthosenonverbalstimuliinacommunicationsettingthataregeneratedbythesenderandhisorheruseoftheenvironment—thesehavepotentialmessagevalueforboththesenderandreceiver.Nonverbalcommunicationcodesorsymbolsorstimuliinacommunicatingsettingcanbedividedintodifferentcategories:paralanguage,silence,proxemics,chronemics,oculesics,olfactics,haptics,kinesics,chromaticsandattire.ParalanguageisthesetofaudiblesoundsthataccompanyorallanguagetoaugmentitsmeaningWhentheGermanpoetKlopstockwrotetonesofsoundswegenerateoftencommunicatemorethanthewordsthattheyproduce.Wehavetheexperienceofwatchingforeignmovies:ifwedon'tknowthelanguagetheyspeakandtherearenosubtitles,wecanstillinferwhenperformersareexpressinganger,sorrow,joy,oranyotheremotions.Silencecuesaffectinterpersonalcommunicationbyprovidinganintervalinanongoinginteractionduringwhichtheparticipantshavetimetothink,checkorsuppressanemotion,encodealengthyresponse,orinaugurateanotherlineofthought.Chronemicsisthestudyofhowpeopleperceiveandusetime.Peoplehavedifferentattitudestowardpunctualitybecausetheyhavedifferenttimeorientations.Peoplefrommonochronicculturesemphasizeschedules,whilepeoplefrompolychronicculturesstressinvolvementofpeopleandthecompletionoftasksasopposedtoastrictadherencetoschedules.Proxemicsreferstothestudyofspatialrelations.Culturesvaryinsuchthingsashowlivingspaceisarrangedandthedistancebetweenpeopleininteraction.Oculesicsreferstothestudyofcommunicationssentbytheeyes.Eyesplayacentralroleinimpressionmanagement.Whenpeoplesaythateyestalk,theymeanthateyesconveymessages.Althougheyecontactisaveryimportantwayofcommunication,directeye-to-eyecontactisnotacustomthroughouttheworld.Olfacticsreferstothestudyofcommunicationviasmell.Americansfeeluncomfortablewithnaturalsmells,sotheyspendmillionsofdollarstomakeMost心absperceiveaperson'ssmellasanextensionoftheperson.Hapticsortouchreferstocommunicationthroughtheuseofbodilycontact.Therearedifferentbehavioralpatternsregardingtouch.Welearntherules,aswemovefrominfancyintochildhood.Thewrongbehavioroftouchinginstrangeculturescancreateuncertaintyandevenillfeeling.Kinesicsreferstogestures,facialexpressions,eyecontact,bodyposition,bodymovement,andformsofgreetingandtheirrelationstocommunication.Althoughanypartofthebodycanbeusedforcommunicatingnonverbally,face,hands,andarmsaretheprimary灼nesicchannelsthroughwhichnonverbalmessagesaresent.Chromaticsreferstothestudyofcolorinreferencetopeople'sperceptions,behaviors,andimpressionsofothers.Thesamecolormaybeinterpreteddifferentlyindifferentcultures.Thewrongcolorofyourclothesmaymakepeopledislikeyou,orevenhateyou.Itisquiteimportanttowatchwhatcolorisappropriateincertainsettings,whenyouareinaforeigncountryAttirereferstoclothingandphysicalappearance.Italsoservesasnonverbalsymbols.Weoftenidentifyaperson'sculturebyhisorherphysicalappearanceanddress.Communicationwithothersisoftenperceivedbyvisualobservationsofhisorherphysicalappearance.Chapter7culturalpatternsDefiningculturalpatternswaysofthinkingwaysofactingComponentsofculturalpatterns組成beliefs信仰values價值觀norms行為準則socialpractices社會行為Culturetheoryhigh-contextculture高語境文化（很多信息在環(huán)境中是可見的，沒有必要用語言過多描述）low-contextculture（語言作為主要傳遞信息的方式）problemsposed(高語境的會嫌棄低語境的人說的太多，給予了太多不需要的信息)Valueorientationhumannatureorientationperson-natureorientation(mastery-over-natureview/harmony-with-natureview/subjugation-to-natureview)timeorientation(value-past/value-present/value-future)activityorientation(value-doing/value-being/value-being-in-becoming)relationalorientationCulturalvariabilityindividualismandcollectivism獨立的集中的uncertaintyavoidancepowerdistancemasculinityandfemininity男權(quán)主義女權(quán)主義SummaryAlthoughindividuals,eveninthesameculture,tendtohavedifferentvaluepatterns,thereareoverallvaluesshapedbyone'sculturewhicharesharedbythemembersofthegroup.Understandingaculture'svaluepatternisofgreatsignificanceintermsofunderstandingtheirbehaviorsSharedbeliefs,values,norms,andsocialpracticesthatarestableovertimeandthatleadtoroughlysimilarbehaviorsacrosssimilarsituationsareknownasculturalpatterns.Abeliefisanideathatpeopleassumetobetrueabouttheworld.Valuesinvolvewhatacultureregardsasgoodorbad,rightorwrong,fairorunfair,justorunjust,beautifulorugly,cleanordirty,valuableorworthless,appropriateorinappropriate,andkindorcruel.Normsarethesociallysharedexpectationsofappropriatebehaviors.Socialpracticesarethepredictablebehaviorpatternsthatmembersofaculturetypicallyfollow.Contextisdefinedastheinformationthatsurroundsanevent;itisinextricablyboundupwiththemeaningoftheevent.EdwardT.Hallintroducedthehighcontextcommunicationandlowcontextcommunication.Ahighcontext(HC)communicationormessageisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationisalreadyintheperson,whileverylittleisinthecoded,explicitlytransmittedpartofthemessage.Alowcontext(LC)communicationisjusttheopposite;i.e.,themassoftheinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode.Itisverbalized.KluckhohnandStrodtbeck'sValueOrientationsarebasedon:humannature,person-natureinterface,time,activityandhumanrelationships.Thesefiveaspectsdefinegroupculturesaccordingtodifferentcategories:Asforhuman-natureorientation,culturescouldbedividedintosixgroups:(1)Humansareevilbutchangeable;(2)Humansareevilandunchangeable;(3)Humansareneutralwithrespecttogoodandevil;(4)Humansareamixtureofgoodandevil;(5)Humansaregoodbutchangeable;(6)Humansaregoodandunchangeable.Theperson-natureorientationconsistsofthreecategories:(1)Masteryovernature;(2)Harmonywithnature;(3)Subjugationtonature.Asfarastimeorientationisconcerned,culturesmaybelongto(1)Thepastorientation;(2)Thepresentorientation;(3)Thefutureorientation.Theactivityorientationinvolvesthreegroups:(1)Thed?omgonentatlOn;(2)Thebeingorientation;(3)Thebeing-in-becomingorientation.GeertHofstedehasidentifiedfourvaluedimensionsthathaveasignificantimpactonbehaviorinallcultures.Thesedimensionsareindividualismandcollectivism,uncertaintyavoidance,powerdistance,andmasculinityandfemininity.Individualisticculturesgivemoreimportancetoindividuals'needswhentheydothingssuchassettinggoals.Collectivismischaracterizedbyarigidsocialframeworkthatdistinguishesbetweenin-groupsandout-groups.Uncertaintyavoidancedealswiththedegreetowhichmembersofaculturetrytoavoiduncertainty.Powerdistanceisextenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersoftosay,howequalorunequal.thepeopleinaparticularculturethinkpeopleshouldbe.Themajordifferentiationbetweenmasculineandfeminineculturesishowgenderrolesaredistributedincultures.Thosedimensionsoffercertainmeasurementsforresearcherstostudyaspecificcultureordocomparativeresearchworkfromaninterculturalperspective.Chapter8culturalinfluenceoncontextsThebusinesscontextcultureinfluenceonbusinesscontextmanagement不同國家方式不同businessetiquettenorms商務(wù)禮儀(appointmentseeking/thedateforbusiness/greetingbehavior/giftgiving)Theeducationalcontextcultureinfluenceontheeducationalcontextrolebehaviorsofstudentsandteachersclassroomparticipationturntaking說話的方式時間和行為ThehealthcarecontextcultureinfluenceonthehealthcarecontextfamilyandgenderrolesinthehealthcarecontextconversationalstructuresandlanguageSummaryMeaningincommunicationisbasicallydecidedbycontext.Communicationisnotdevoidofexternalinfluence:allhumaninteractionisinfluencedtosomedegreebythesocial,physical,andculturalsettingsinwhichitoccurs.Thisisknownasthecommunicationcontext.Contextmayconsistofthesocial,political,andhistoricalstructuresinwhichthecommunicationoccurs.Communicationinthreeareasismostinfluencedbycontext:business,educationandhealthcare.Inthebusinessfield,managementhasbecomeacrucialissueandthemanagingstylesvaryfromculturetoculture.Thesedifferencesareapttocausetroublesforinterculturalcommunication.Inadd山ontomanagement,manyconcretebusinesspracticessuchasappointmentseeking,greeting,giftgivingandnegotiationarealsoposingproblemsforthebusinessinteraction.Peopleneedtounderstandandpracticetherulesininterculturalbusinesscontexttobecompetentcommunicators.Theeducationalcontextisanothersignificantareawhereinterculturalcommunicationfrequentlyoccurs.Allparticipantsintheeducationalcontext—teachers,students,parents,schooladministrators,andotherstaff—bringtheircultures'beliefs,values,norms,andsocialpracticeswiththem.Allofthesecaninfluencebehaviorsonhowstudentsandteachersrelatetoeachotherintheclassroom.Similarly,healthcareprofessionalshavebeentryingtoincreaseinterculturalcommunicationskillswithinthe訂professionaltraininganddevelopmentprograms.Thehealthcarecontextaffectsdoctors,nurses,counselors,andhealthcareworkers,aswellaspatients,families,communities,andculturalgroups.Thedifferentconcernsaboutreasonsforillness,familymemberroles,genderrolesandlanguageprovetobeveryproblematicinthehealthcarecontext.Healthcareprofessionalsshouldassumeaspecialresponsibilityinassuringthattheyunderstandtheirpatientsinordertotreatthemeffectively.Successfulcommunicationacrossculturesrequiresawillingnesstoattempttounderstandthedifferentculturalpatterns—thebeliefs,values,andinteractionnorms.However,inthethreecontextsdescribedinthischapter,asinallothers,youmustrememberthateachindividualmayormaynotsharethepreferencesofherorhisculturalgroup.Chapter9interculturaladaptationAcculturation文化適應(yīng)definitionofacculturationmodesofacculturation(assimilation同化/integration融合/separationandsegregation分離和隔離/marginalization邊緣化)factorsaffectingacculturation(theroleofcommunication/theroleofthehostenvironment/theroleofpredisposition個人素質(zhì))cultureshocksymptomsofcultureshock(physical/psychological)formsofcultureshock(language/role/transition/culture/education/adjustment/distance)effectsofcultureshock(positive/negative)Interculturaladaptation1.definition2.stages(U-curve:honeymoon/crisis/adjustment/biculturalism)str