-.zForeword填空1：Developmentstudiesisamultidisciplinarybranchofsocialsciencewhichaddressesissuesofconcerntodevelopingcountries.Ithashistoricallyplacedaparticularfocusonissuesrelatedtosocialandeconomicdevelopment,anditsrelevancemaythereforee*tendtocommunitiesandregionsoutsideofdevelopingworld.DevelopmentstudiesisofferedasaspecializedMaster’sdegreeinanumberofuniversities,and,lesscommonly,asanundergraduatedegree.Ithasgrowninpopularityasasubjectofstudysincetheearly1990s,andhasbeenmostwidelytaughtandresearchedinthethirdworld.InChina,thiscoursehasbeentaughtindifferentcollegeofAgronomy.InChinaAgriculturalUniversity,thiscoursehasbeentaughtinCollegeofHumanitiesandDevelopment(theformerCollegeofRuralDevelopment).Ithasalsobeentaughtincountrieswithacolonialhistory,suchastheUK,wheredevelopmentstudiesoriginated.Asasubject,itismainlycomposedof3parts:developmenttheory,developmentresearchanddevelopmentpractice.答題1——舉3個(gè)例子說(shuō)明開(kāi)展援助并不總是有效的〔有無(wú)效的時(shí)候〕2.4EffectivenessAideffectivenessIsthedegreetowhichdevelopmentaidworks,andis,asubjectofsignificantdisagreement.DissidenteconomistssuchasPeterBauerandMiltonFriedmanarguedinthe1960sthataidIsineffective.Manyeconometricstudiesinrecentyearshavesupportedtheviewthatdevelopmentaidhasnoeffectonthespeedwithwhichcountriesdevelop.Negativesideeffectsofaidcanincludedasunbalancedappreciationofrecipient’scurrency(knownasDutchDisease)increasingcorruption,andadversepoliticaleffectssuchaspostponementsofnecessaryeconomicanddemocraticreforms.Thereisalsomuchdebateaboutwhichformdevelopmentaidshouldtakeinordertobeeffective.Ithasbeenarguedthatmuchgovernment-to-governmentaidwasineffectivebecauseitwasmerelyawaytosupportstrategicallyimportantleaders.Agoode*ampleofthisIstheformerdictatorofZAIRE,MobutoSeseSeko,wholostsupportfromtheWestaftertheColdWarhadended.Mobuto,atthetimeofhisdeath,hadasufficientpersonalfortune(particularlyinSwissbanks)topayofftheentiree*ternaldebtofZaire.Besidessomeinstancesthatonlythepresident(and/orhiscloseentourage)receivesthemoneresultingfromdevelopmentaid,themoneyobtainedisoftenbadlyspentaswell.Fore*ample,inChad,theChadE*portProject,aoilproductionprojectsupportedbytheWorldBank,wassetup.Theearningsofthisprojectwereusedtoobtainarms.Thegovernmentdefendedthispurchasebystatingthat“developmentwasnotpossiblewithoutsafety〞.However,theMilitaryofhadisnotoriousforseveremisconductagainstthepopulationanddidnotevendefendthepopulationindistress.In2021,theWorldBankretreatedfromtheprojectthatthusincreasedenvironmentalpollutionandhumansuffering.AnothercriticismhasbeenthatWesterncountriesoftenprojecttheirownneedsandsolutionsontoothersocietiesandcultures.Inresponse,westernhelpinsomecaseshasbecomemore‘endogenous’,whichmeansthatneedsaswellassolutionsarebeingdevisedinaccordancewithlocalcultures.Ithasalsobeenarguedthathelpbasedondirectdonationcreatesdependencyandcorruption,andhasanadverseeffectonlocalproduction.Asaresult,ashifthastakenplacetowardsaidbasedonactivationoflocalassetsandstimulationmeasuressuchasmicrocredit.Aidhasalsobeenarguedthathelpbasedondirectdonationcreatesdependencyandcorruption,andhasanadverseeffectonlocalproduction.Asaresult,ashifthastakenplacetowardsaidbasedonactivationoflocalassetsandstimulationmeasuressuchasmicrocredit.Aidhasalsobeenineffectiveinyoungrecipientcountriesinwhichethnictensionsarestrong:sometimesethnicconflictshavepreventedefficientdeliveryofaid.Insomecases,westernsurplusesthatresultedfromfaultyagriculture-orotherpolicieshavebeendumpedinpoorcountries,thuswipingoutlocalproductionandincreasingdependency.Inseveralinstances,loansthatwereconsideredirretrievable(forinstancebecausefundshadbeenembezzledbyadictatorwhohasalreadydiedordisappeared),havebeenwrittenoffbydonorcountries,whosubsequentlybookedthisasdevelopmentaid.Inmanycases,WesterngovernmentsplacedorderswithWesterncompaniesasaformofsubsidizingthem,andlatershippedthesegoodstopoorcountrieswhichoftenhadnouseforthem.Theseprojectsaresometimescalledwhiteelephants.AcommoncriticisminrecentyearsIsthatrichcountrieshaveputsomanyconditionsonaidthatithasreducedaideffectiveness.Inthee*ampleoftiedaid,donorcountriesoftenrequiretherecipienttopurchasegoodsandservicesfromthedonor,evenifthesearecheaperelsewhere.Otherconditionsincludeopeningupthecountrytoforeigninvestment,evenifitmightnotbereadytodoso.Alloftheseproblemshavemadethataverylargepartofthespendmoneyondevelopmentaidissimplywasteduselessly.AccordingtoGerbertvanderAa,fortheNetherlands,only33%ofthedevelopmentaidissuccessful,another33%failsandoftheremaining33%theeffectisunclear.Ane*cerptfromDr.ThomasDichter’srecentlypublishedbookDespiteGoodIntentions:WhyDevelopmentAssistancetotheThirdWorldHasFailedreads:〞Thisindustryhasbecomeoneinwhichthebenefitsofwhatisspentareincreasinglyininverseproportiontotheamountspent-acaseofmoregetsyouless.Asdonorsareattractedonthebasisofappealsemphasizing“product〞,results,andaccountability…thetendencytoengageinproject-based,direct-actiondevelopmentbecomesinevitable.Becausefundingfordevelopmentisincreasinglyfinite,thissituationisverymuchazero-sumgame.Whatgetslostintheshuffleisthefarmorechallenginglong-termprocessofdevelopment.〞TheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology’sAbhijitBanerjeeandRuiminHehaveundertakenarigorousstudyoftherelativelyfewindependentevaluationsofaidprogramsuccessesandfailures.Theysuggestthefollowinginterventionsareusuallyhighlyeffectiveformsofaidinnormalcircumstances:Subsidiesgivendirectlytofamiliestobespentofchildren’seducationandhealthEducationvouchersforschooluniforms&te*tbooksTeachingselectedilliterateadultstoreadandwriteDewormingdrugsandvitamin/nutritionalsupplementsVaccinationandHIV/AIDSpreventionprogramsIndoorspraysagainstmalariaanti-mosquitobednettingSuitablefertilizersCleanwatersuppliesChapter1UnderstandingDevelopment答題2——左右派：Left-wing——State〔左派—強(qiáng)調(diào)國(guó)家〕Right-wing——Market〔右派—強(qiáng)調(diào)市場(chǎng)〕Left-wing左派：凱恩斯經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)、構(gòu)造主義經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)、國(guó)家統(tǒng)治經(jīng)濟(jì)論、Dependencytheory依附理論Right-wing右派：古典政治經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)、構(gòu)造調(diào)整政策、Modernizationtheory現(xiàn)代化理論填空3、4：1、TheProgressofDevelopmentDevelopmenthascomealongwayinthepast6decades.Asbothanenterpriseandascholarlydiscipline,developmentbecamesignificantintheperiodimmediatelyfollowingtheWorldWarⅡ.InternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment(whichsooncametobeknownastheWorldBank)wascreatedforthetaskofrebuildingcountries-andinEurope,acontinent-thathavebeenshatteredbywar.Inthosedays,developmentwasconsideredlargelysynonymouswithindustrialization.Itwas,inshort,aboutgettingricherormoreprosperous,andprosperitywasmeasuredindollarfigures.Industrializationandinparticular,acountry’scapacitytomanufacturefinishedgoods,wasseenasessential.AsianandAfricancountriescametoindependencefromformercolonialempiresofEurope,andwereeagerfortworeasonstospeeduptheirdevelopment.Onewastoprovidebetterlivesfortheircitizen.Thesecondwastoconsolidatetheirindependencetoconvertthepoliticalqualityintoaneconomicequalitythatwouldearnthemrespectandsenseofself-dignitytheyfelthadbeendeniedthemundercolonialism.Thescholarlyliteratureofthetimeonlyreinforcedthispush:developmentwasaboutusingthestatetospearheadtheprocessofmodernizingthesocietyandraisingitsincomes.2、DevelopmentTheoryinthePostwarPeriodHavingbeguntoponderthepossibleshapeofthepostwarworld,theAlliedleadersheldaconferencetodiscussthestructuretheywouldgivetotheworldeconomy.ThismeetingtookplaceinahotelinBrettonWoods,NewHampshire.Theconferencewouldprovidetheblueprintforpostwarcapitalisteconomy.Chiefamongtheconcernsoftheparticipantswasthedesiretocreateafavorableinternationaltradingenvironment.TheywantedtoputbehindthemtheconditionsthathadworsenedtheDepression.Monetaryinstabilityandlackofcredithadinhibitedtradeamongnationsandledgovernmentstoadoptprotectionistpolicieswhentheycouldnotpayfortheirimports.Tothisend,theconferencegaverisetotheIMFandInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment,thelatterofwhichbecameknownastheWorldBank.In1947,theBrettonWoodSystem,asitcametobeknown,wasroundedoutbytheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT).布雷頓森林會(huì)議〔BrettonWoodsConference〕最重要的3大產(chǎn)出：Discussthestructureofthefutureworldeconomy,provideablueprintforthepostwarcapitalisteconomyCreateafavorableinternationaltradingenvironmentTurnouttobeGATT.GiverisetoIMFandWB.Chapter3ParticipatoryProjectProcess答題3——參與式工程的理論過(guò)程的十大步驟TheoreticalProcess：Profiledevelopment背景信息材料準(zhǔn)備Participationanalysis參與分析Problemanalysis問(wèn)題分析Potentialanalysis潛在性分析Objectiveanalysis目標(biāo)分析Alternativesanalysis選擇方案分析Program-formulationandprojectplandescription工程方案描述〔邏輯框架〕Implementationdesign實(shí)施方案設(shè)計(jì)Monitoringandevaluation監(jiān)測(cè)與評(píng)估10、Re-planning再方案答題4——參與式工程的實(shí)踐過(guò)程的五大步驟PracticalProcess：Projectapplicationstage工程申請(qǐng)階段Projectfeasibilitystudystage工程可行性研究階段Projectapprovalstageandsigningofthefinancialagreement工程財(cái)政支持與簽署階段Projectimplementationstage工程實(shí)施階段Projectconclusionandthere-planningstage工程完畢和再方案階段填空5：:1.3ProblemanalysisTheterm“problem〞isinterpretedasadiscrepancybetweene*pectationandreality;orbetween“whatisnow〞and“whatwillbeinthefuture〞.“Whatwillbeinthefuture〞r(shí)eflectstheobjectiveanorganizationwantstoachieveafterthesolutionofacertainproblem.Thepresenceofanunresolvedproblemoranunsatisfiede*pectationcanbeseenasaprobleminitself.Itmightcomefromtheshortageofhumanresourceorphysicalresource;orthelackofunderstandingofthecomple*socialandeconomicsituation,orthelackofe*perience.Afteralltheproblemshavebeenlistedout,peoplecometorealizethatitisimpossibletosolvealltheproblemsatonetime;andnotalloftheproblemshavethesamesignificance.Thereforeitisnecessarytoconductasystematicanalysisabouttheseproblems.Firstthe“coreproblem〞hastobefoundout,whichusuallylocatesatthecentralpositionofthe“problemtree〞.Thisproblemtreereflectsthecause-effectrelationshipsamongtheseproblems.Theseproblemscomefromdifferentprofessionalfieldssuchasnaturalscience,socialscience,economicscienceandenvironmentalscience.Theproblemanalysisnotonlyrevealsthecause-effectframework,thecoreproblem,butalsothoseproblemsleadingtoandfromthecoreproblem.Publicparticipationisveryimportant.Thefarmersknowmoreabouttheirownsituationsandtheirownproblemsthananyoutsiders.Iftheycometorealizethattheobjectiveoftheprojectistosolvetheirownproblems,theywillbecomemoreactiveinparticipatinginotherstepsoftheproject,especiallytheimplementationprocess.填空6：:1.5ObjectiveanalysisAnobjectivecanberegardedasane*pectedorplannedoutcomewhichwillbeachievedatsometimeinthefuture.Objectiveanalysisdepictsthepossibilityofthisfutureachievementthroughsolvingthee*istedproblems.Thispossibilitydeterminestheprincipleandthepotentialoutcomeoftheproject.Thisprocessissimplyconvertingthe“negativedescription〞oftheproblemIntothe“positivee*pectation〞ofthereality,I.e.thedescriptionoftheobjective.Inthisway,the“problemtree〞whichdepictsthecause-effectrelationshipisconvertedintothe“objective-tree〞whichshowsthemeans-endrelationship.Chapter4ParticipatoryDevelopmentPlanning填空7：:Asanacademicfield,developmentstudiescanbedividedintothreebranches:developmenttheory,developmentresearchanddevelopmentpractice.Oneofthetopicswhichisoftenmentionedwithinthedevelopmentresearchisdevelopmentinterventionprocess,whichinturn,consistsofdevelopmentpoliciesanddevelopmentprojects.Usually,adevelopmentprojectinvolvesthefollowingstages:baselinesurvey,analysis,design,implementation,monitoringandevaluation.Theparticipationofdifferentstakeholdersinthesevariousstagescoversmanyimportantresearchissues.Developmentcantakeplaceattheregionallevel(oneorseveralcounties,onorseveraltownships),oratthecommunitylevels(oneorseveralvillages).Soaregionalplanningisanintegrationandcoordinationfortheplanningofalltherelatedareas.Theoutcomeofaparticipatorydevelopmentplanningisnotatraditionaleconomicblueprint,oratechnologicaldesign,butaconcretedevelopmentproject,whichcanbecarriedout.Theplanningandmanagementofdevelopmentisanimportantpartofthecontentofdevelopmentpractice.Participatorydevelopmentplanningisaprocessparticipatedbystakeholdergroups.ItisbothProblem-Solvingorientedandaction-orientedandtakesthedevelopmentprojectasitsfinaloutcome.加1——Developmentintervention:DevelopmentpoliciesDevelopmentprojectsInternationallevelNationallevelProvinciallevelCountylevelTownshiplevelVillagelevel(communitylevel)加2：Paradigm式Neighborhood居民點(diǎn)答題5——規(guī)劃程序的5個(gè)階段：5.2PlanningproceduresHeplanningprocedurescanbedividedintoseveralstages.Macro-levelstage宏觀水平階段〔政府〕Department-levelstage部門(mén)水平階段Regional-levelstage區(qū)域水平階段County-levelstage縣級(jí)水平階段Micro-levelstage圍觀水平階段〔community/village〕填空8——FunctionsofParticipatoryDevelopmentPlanning參與式開(kāi)展規(guī)劃的三大功能：:MeetingtheurgentneedsofpoorpeopleImplementingthenationalpolicyonpovertyreductionServingasanimplementationtoolforthelarge-scaledevelopmentproject答題6——為什么在規(guī)劃過(guò)程中經(jīng)常放棄“理性〔rational〕〞而追求“滿(mǎn)意〞：9.2RationplanningRationisacoreissueforplanning.Whenwetalkabouttherationalityofanapproach,wemeanitisbasedonanalysesandprinciples,notonfeelingsandjudgments.Arationalgoalmeanstheapproachwillbringlargestoutputgivenacertaininputofobtainacertainoutputwiththesmallestinput.Thisconceptcomesdirectlyfromtheideaofmostopticalresourceallocationineconomy.Arationalapproachinvolvesthefollowingactivities:Theidentificationanddefinitionofaproblem;Theclassificationofgoalsandvalueswhicharerelatedwiththeproblem;Identifyingthenumberofgoalsandofsolutionsfortheproblem;Predicttheoutcomeofeachalternative;Comparisonbetweendifferentalternatives;Identifyingonealternativewhoseoutcomeisclosesttothegoal,orsolvetheproblemtothelargeste*tent,orismostcost-effective.However,wecanseethatrationalityisanidealdescription.Inrealitywearelimitedbyourabilitytoprocesstheinformation,andwecannotanalyzealltheinformationaboutallalternatives.Underthiscircumstance,peoplewillNeglectthoseproblemswhichtheyarenotinterestedin;Adjustthescopeoftheproblemaccordingtothelearninge*perienceofdecision-makinginthepastGiveuprationalityandpursuit“satisfaction〞Satisfactionisanimportantconceptwhichcanbeusedtoe*plainmanyindividualandorganizationalbehaviors.Itmeanspeopleacceptsolutionsthatare“goodenough〞,insteadofvalue-ma*imizing.Thisisadailyconditionformostcommonpeople.Whenpeoplemakeadecision,itisoftenacompromisewhichcanbeacceptedbyalltheparties,sinceitisabsolutelyimpossibletoachieveallthegoalstothesamee*tent.Peopletrytofindarationalsolutioninlife.Buteveniftheyknowwhatarationalsolutionis,theyoftenchoosesatisfactoryresultsinsteadofrationalresultwhichwillbringthelargestbenefit.PlanninginChinaistoagreate*tentcontrolledbythegovernmentofficials.Someoftheplanscanneverbefunded.Theplannersseldomhaveopportunitytousetherationalapproach.Somelarge-scaleplanning(e.g.urbanplanning)createstheconditionfortheapplicationofrationalapproaches.HoweverinruralChina,theplannersmighttrytousetherationallogictoanalyzeproblemsorfindthesolutions,butseldomcanuseitfordecision-making.答題7——分析規(guī)劃者在規(guī)劃過(guò)程中如何面對(duì)不確定性.如何減少不確定性.〔不是為什么?。?！〕：9.4UncertaintyinplanningTheidealsituationofmakingdecisionsisoneofcertainty,thatis,asituationinwhichaplannercanmakeaccuratedecisionsbecausetheoutcomeofeveryalternativeisknown.Afarmorecommonsituationisoneofrisk,conditionsinwhichtheplannerisabletoestimatethelikelihoodofcertainoutcomes.Whathappensifyouhaveadecisionwhereyouarenotcertainabouttheoutcomeandcan’tevenmakereasonableprobabilityestimates?Wecallsuchasituationuncertainty.Thepurposeofplanningistoreducetheuncertaintyinthefuture,butplanningitselfhasbeenundertheinfluenceofuncertainty.Uncertaintycanbereduced,butneverbethoroughlyeradicated.Inmakingstrategicselection,planerscannoteasilypredictandcontrolwhatwillhappeninthefuture.Whattheycandoistoanalyzethedatarelatedwiththecurrentsituation.Apparently,thismightreducethereliabilityofplanning.Thereare2waystosolvethisproblem.Oneistofindthesourcesofuncerta