PracticalSolutionsToGlobalBusinessNegotiations克勞德?賽利奇（ClaudeCellich）蘇比哈什?C?賈殷（SubhashC.Jain）著Part2NegotiationofEnvironmentandSettingChapter2RoleofCultureinCross-BorderNegotiationsChapter3SelectingYourNegotiatingStylePART2Merchantsthroughouttheworldhavethesamereligion.—HeinrichHeineCHAPTER2

RoleofCultureinCross-BorderNegotiationsCultureCultureincludesalllearnedbehaviorandvaluestransmittedthroughsharedexperiencetoanindividuallivingwithinasociety.

Itiscommonlyagreedthataculturemusthavethesethreecharacteristics:1.Itislearned—thatis,peopleovertimetransmitthecultureoftheirgroupfromgenerationtogeneration.2.Itisinterrelated—thatis,onepartofthecultureisdeeplyconnectedwithanotherpart,suchasreligionwithmarriageorbusinesswithsocialstatus.3.Itisshared—thatis,mostmembersofthegroupacceptthetenetsoftheculture.CHAPTER2

RoleofCultureinCross-BorderNegotiationsCulturaldifferencescanin?uencebusinessnegotiationsinsigni?cantandunexpectedways.DefinitionofNegotiationThebasicconceptofNegotiationisinterpreteddifferentlyfromonecul-turetoanother.IntheUnitedStates,negotiationisamechanicalexerciseofoffersandcounteroffersthatleadstoadeal.InJapan,negotiationissharinginformationanddevelopingarelationshipthatmayleadtoadeal.EffectofCultureonNegotiationSelectionofNegotiatorsThecriteriaforselectingnegotiatorsvaryfromculturetoculture.Usually,thecriteriaincludeknowledgeofthesubjectmatter,seniority,familyconnections,gender,age,experience,andstatus.ProtocolCultureaffectsthedegreeofformalitythepartiesuseinnegotiations.Culturein?uencesmethodsofgreetingaswellasdresscodesEffectofCultureonNegotiationCommunicationThemanydifferentlanguagesoftheworlddonottranslateliterallyfromonetoanother,andunderstandingthesymbolicandphysicalaspectsofdifferentcultures’communicationisevenmoredif?culttoachieve.Forexample,Table

thereportintheUnitedStatesmeans“postponement”;inEngland,itmeans“bringthemattertotheforefront.”Bodylanguageisacaseofnonverbalcommunication.EffectofCultureonNegotiationTimeThemeaningandimportanceoftimevaryfromculturetoculture.InEasterncultures,timeis?uidandcircular.IntheUnitedStates,timeis?xedandvaluable.EffectofCultureonNegotiationRiskPropensityInculturesinwhichriskpropensityishigh,negotiatorsareabletocloseadealevenifcer-taininformationislackingbutthebusinessopportunityotherwiselooksattractive.Negotiatorsbelongingtorisk-averseculturesdemandadditionalinformationtoexamineallsidesofadealcarefullybeforereachinga?nalagreement.EffectofCultureonNegotiationGroupsVersusIndividualsInsomecultures,individualityishighlyvalued.Inothers,theemphasisisonthegroup.NatureofAgreementIntheUnitedStates,emphasisisplacedonlogic,formality,andlegalityoftheagreement.Intraditionalcultures,adealisstruckdependingonfamily/politicalconnections,evenwhencertainaspectsoftheagreementareweak.EffectofCultureonNegotiationThe?rststepingainingculturalunderstandingistoidentifythegrouporcommunitywhosecultureyouwanttostudy.Fornegotiators,therelevantculturalknowledgecanbedividedintotwocategories:(a)traditions,etiquette,andbehaviorofthe(b)playersandtheprocess.Inadditiontonationalcultures,negotiatorsneedtobeawareofprofessionalandcorporatecultures.UnderstandingCultureCulturaldifferencesamongmanagersbelongingtodifferenttypesofcompaniesProtocolandDeportmentCross-culturaletiquetteHall’sFrameworkRelationshipIstheculturedealfocusedorrelationshipfocused?CommunicationArecommunicationsindirectand“highcontext”ordirectand“l(fā)owcontext”?TimeIstheculturegenerallyconsideredtobe“monochronic”or“polychronic”?SpaceDopeoplepreferalotofpersonalspace,oraretheycomfortablewithless?DeeperCulturalCharacteristicsHofstede’sCulturalDimensionsPowerDistance(DistributionofPower)UncertaintyAvoidance(ToleranceforUncertainty)IndividualismVersusCollectivismMasculinity(HarmonyVersusAssertiveness)long-termorientationversusshort-termorientationDeeperCulturalCharacteristicsKeyIndividualsKeyindividualsrefertothosepeopleinsideandoutsidethecompanywhoseapprovalmustbesoughtbeforeanegotiateddealis?nalized.DecisionProcessEquallyimportantistheneedtounderstandtheroleeachindividualislikelytoplayintheapprovalprocess.InformalInfluencesManycountrieshavewebsofin?uencemorepowerfulthantheformalbossesPlayersandProcessNegotiatingGoal:ContractorRelationshipInsomecultures,negotiatorsaremoreinterestedinshort-termdeals;Inothercountries,theemphasisisonbuildinglong-termrela-tionships.TraitsforCopingWithCultureNegotiatingAttitudeThestrongerpartycantakethefollowingstepstosoftentheattitudeoftheopponent:(a)Explaintheperspectivesofthetransactionfullybecausetheotherpartymightlackthesophisticationtounderstandthenitty-grittyofthenegotiatedbusinessdeal.(b)Determinetherealinterestoftheotherpartythroughquestioning.Thismayrequirethenegotiatortounderstandtheother’shistoryandculture.(c)Amendtheproposaltosatisfytheinterestoftheotherparty.TraitsforCopingWithCulturePersonalStyle:InformalorFormalIndividuals’negotiatingstylecanbeinformalorformal.Styleherereferstothewayanegotiatortalks,usestitles,anddresses.Communication:DirectorIndirectInculturesinwhichcommunicationisdirect,suchasGermany,anegotiatorcanexpectdirectanswerstoquestions.Inculturesthatcommunicateindirectly(Japan,forinstance),itmaybedif?culttointerpretmessageseasily.TraitsforCopingWithCultureSensitivitytoTime:HighorLowSomeculturesaremorerelaxedabouttimethanothers.ForNorthAmericans,timeismoney,whichisalwaysinshortsupply.Mexicans,asanexample,aremorerelaxedabouttime.Thus,negotiationsessionsshouldbeplannedandscheduledsothatthepaceofdiscussionsrunssmoothly.TraitsforCopingWithCultureEmotions:HighorLowSomenegotiatorsaremoreemotionalthanothers.Anegotiatorshouldestablishtheemotionalbehavioroftheotherpartyandadjustnegotiationtacticsappropriatelytosatisfysuchbehavior.FormofAgreement:GeneralorSpecificCultureoftenin?uencestheformofagreementapartyrequires.Usually,NorthAmericanspreferadetailedcontractthatprovidesforalleventualities.TheChinese,however,preferacontractintheformofgeneralprinciples.TraitsforCopingWithCultureBuildinganAgreement:BottomUporTopDownSomenegotiatorsbeginwithagreementongeneralprinciplesandproceedtospeci?citems,suchasprice,deliverydate,andproductquality.Othersbeginwithagreementonspeci?cs,thesumofwhichbecomesthecontract.TeamOrganization:OneLeaderVersusConsensusInsomecultures,oneleaderhastheauthoritytomakecommitments.Inothercultures,groupconsensusmustbesoughtbeforeagreeingtoadeal.TraitsforCopingWithCultureRiskTaking:HighorLowAnegotiatormustexaminetheotherparty’sattitudeaboutrisk.Ifthenegotiatordeterminesthattheotherpartyisriskaverse,heorsheshouldfocustheattentiononproposingrules,mechanisms,andrelationshipsthatreducetheapparentrisksinthedeal.TraitsforCopingWithCultureThankYou!It’sawell-knownpropositionthatyouknowwho’sgoingtowinanegotiation:it’shewhopausesthelongest.

—RobertHolmesCHAPTER3

SelectingYourNegotiatingStyleDodgersGenerally,dodgersdonotlikefacingsituationsinwhichdecisionsmustbemadeandrisksassumed.Thedodgerisareluctantpartywhodoesnotenjoynegotiatingandwhowithdrawsfromthediscussionsorsimplyrefusestoparticipate.DreamersDreamersapproachnegotiationswithonemajorgoalinmind,thatis,topreservetherelationshipevenifitmeansgivingupunnecessaryconcessionswhilereducingtheirownexpectations.StyleDifferencesAmongNegotiatorsHagglersHagglersviewnegotiationsasagive-and-t-akegame.Hagglersbuildsuper?cialrelationshipsandaresatis?edwithsplittingthedifferencetoreacha?nalagreement.Thisstyleismoresuitableforonetimedealsindomesticmarketsituations.StyleDifferencesAmongNegotiatorsCompetitorsCompetitorsenjoycon?icts,feelcomfortablewithaggressivebehavior,andemployhardballtactics.Competitorsusewhateverpowertheyhavetowinandfullyexploittheotherparty’sweaknesses.Negotiatorsrelyingoncompetitivestrategiesandtacticsarefoundeverywhere,withagreaterconcentrationintask-orientedcultures.StyleDifferencesAmongNegotiatorsCreativeProblemSolversProblemsolversdisplaycreativityin?ndingmutuallysatisfyingagreements.

Duringthediscussions,theyemphasizecommonneedsandfrequentlysummarizewhathasbeenagreedtosofar.Theytendtohavelong-termvision,sometimesatthecostofshort-termbene?ts.Duringthediscussions,creativeproblemsolversexchangerelevantinformationandaskquestionsinacooperativeandconstructiveenvironment.StyleDifferencesAmongNegotiatorsStyleDifferencesAmongNegotiatorsStrengthsandweaknessesofdifferentnegotiationstylesStyleDifferencesAmongNegotiatorsStrengthsandweaknessesofdifferentnegotiationstyles(continued)

SeeCaseF:TheRenault-NissanAllianceNegotiationsAppropriateNegotiatingStyleMaximizingjointgainsMostpeoplerelyononeormore