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1、 ECON1001 總復(fù)習(xí)重點(diǎn)摘要Part 1 basics and demand & supply1. PPF:(Production Possibilities Frontier)Represents the possible combinations of two goods that can be produced in a certain period of time under the conditions of a given state of technology and fully employed resources.(表示在給定技術(shù)狀態(tài)和充分利用的資源的條件下,在一定時(shí)間
2、段內(nèi)可以生產(chǎn)的兩種貨物的可能組合。)2. Straight-line PPF represents constant opportunity costs between two goods.(兩貨物間恒定的機(jī)會(huì)成本)3. Bowen-outward PPF represents increasing opportunity cost.(增加的機(jī)會(huì)成本)4. Scarcity: The condition in which our wants are greater than the limited resources available to satisfy those wants.(需求大于
3、滿足這些需求所需要的有限資源,必須滿足兩個(gè)條件:有限的資源和無限的欲望。缺一不可)5.6. Supply and Demand(1)Demand的影響因素:Income,Preferences,Prices of substitute goods,Prices of complementary goods,Number of buyers,Expectations of future prices(2)Normal good(正常品): income下降,normal good下降 Inferior good(次品): income 上升,inferior good下降 Neutral goo
4、d(特商品)變化與income無關(guān)(3)Substitutes(替代品):一方需求隨著另一方價(jià)格上升而上升(4)complement(互補(bǔ)品):一方需求下降另一方需求上升或一方需求下降另一方價(jià)格上升(5)Supply的影響因素:Prices of relevant resources;Technology;Prices of Other Goods;Number of sellers;Expectation of future prices;Taxes and subsidies;Government restrictions(6) 例題:“If the price of apples ris
5、es, the supply of apples will rise.” True or false? Explain your answer.False. If the price of apples rises, the quantity supplied of apples will risenot the supply of apples. We are talking about a movement from one point on a supply curve to a point higher up on the supply curve and not about a sh
6、ift in the supply curve.(7)Rationing Device:(配給也就是說,消費(fèi)者某東西的數(shù)量是受到政府限制的。用蘋果來舉例,如果政府出臺(tái)一項(xiàng)政策說每個(gè)人最多只能消費(fèi)一個(gè)蘋果,而這個(gè)國家這有10個(gè)人,那么蘋果的銷量就只能是10了,因?yàn)槟阋噘I是不被允許的。而人們的需求意愿可能并不是這樣,可能每個(gè)人都希望能買到兩個(gè)蘋果,那么需求應(yīng)該是20,當(dāng)這在配給制下是體現(xiàn)不出來的。供給方面則是不管我生產(chǎn)多上,我都只能賣出去10個(gè)。所以最終的結(jié)果就是,不管我需求供給怎么變化,市場上蘋果的交易量始終是10,那么對價(jià)格自然也就沒有影響了。)a rationing device is n
7、ecessary because scarcity exists.(8)Price floor:一個(gè)有效的price floor必須大于均衡價(jià)格,此時(shí)生產(chǎn)大于需求(確保價(jià)格不會(huì)低于一定值,因此此商品可以繼續(xù)生產(chǎn))供給大于需求(9)price ceiling:防止消費(fèi)者買不到此商品,為政府設(shè)置出售該產(chǎn)品的最高價(jià)格(10)the effect of the government making mortgage loans easier to get?Making it easier to get home mortgage loans (as described) results in risin
8、g home prices, which makes buying a house all the harder. Lower down payments Lower interest rates Easier-to-obtain loans Higher demand for houses Higher house prices.(總之,使得更容易獲得房屋按揭貸款(如所述)導(dǎo)致房價(jià)上漲,這使得購買房子更困難。降低支付利率降低利率更容易獲得貸款對房屋的更高需求更高的房價(jià))Part2 summary of Elasticities1. TR(total revenue)=PxQ(看橫縱坐標(biāo)與線上
9、點(diǎn)圍成矩形的面積大小)2. Number of substitutes:一個(gè)商品的替代品越多,需求的價(jià)格彈性越高(更具體的商品具有更多的代替品)3. Necessities versus luxuries:奢侈品比必需品的需求的價(jià)格彈性高4. Percentage of ones budget spent on the good:購買商品的預(yù)算百分比越大,需求的價(jià)格彈性越高5. Time:經(jīng)過越多的時(shí)間(從價(jià)格變化起),商品需求的價(jià)格彈性越高ElasticityWhat does it measure?FormulaPositive/Negative InterpretationPrice E
10、lasticity of Demand (ED)A measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in price.數(shù)量對價(jià)格變化的響應(yīng)性的度量。都是百分比之間的除法Price Elasticity of Supply (Es)Measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to changes in price衡量供應(yīng)到價(jià)格變化的數(shù)量的響應(yīng)性Es=%change in quantity supplied/%change in price變化及圖像和彈性與Ed完全相同
11、調(diào)整期間越是價(jià)格變動(dòng),供給的價(jià)格彈性越高(供應(yīng)數(shù)量可隨時(shí)間增加的商品 因?yàn)轭~外的生產(chǎn)需要時(shí)間)供應(yīng)彈性越低,價(jià)格的增加越大。Cross Price Elasticity of Demand (Ec)Measures the responsiveness in quantity demanded of one good to changes in the price of another good.衡量一個(gè)物品的數(shù)量對另一個(gè)物品的價(jià)格變化的響應(yīng)性。Ec0 Goods are substitutesEc0 normal good 正常品EyMCDE(dynamic efficiency)-yes-
12、 1) lowing ATC through. Eg, better internal system and technology. 2) incentive to do this to make high profit, no competition to steal innovation & have long run profits to invest in R&D. (壟斷是否促進(jìn)生產(chǎn)性,配置性或動(dòng)態(tài)效率? 說明。PE(產(chǎn)品效率) - 不 - 不必生產(chǎn)在P MC時(shí),不需要產(chǎn)生AE(分配效率)DE(動(dòng)態(tài)效率)-yes-1)降低ATC通過例如,更好的內(nèi)部系統(tǒng)和技術(shù)。 2)激勵(lì)這樣做,以獲得
13、高利潤,沒有競爭來偷取創(chuàng)新,并有長期利潤投資于研發(fā)。)二)1. Monopolistic Competiton的三個(gè)條件有很多賣家和買家。每個(gè)行業(yè)的公司生產(chǎn)和銷售一個(gè)微小差別的產(chǎn)品。有方便進(jìn)出2. Monopolistic Competitive Firms Output and Price (short-run)(與完全競爭的公司不同,壟斷競爭者不展示資源配置效率。與壟斷企業(yè)不同,壟斷競爭企業(yè)從長遠(yuǎn)來看不能賺取利潤(因?yàn)楹苋菀走M(jìn)入該行業(yè)),除非它能夠在買方心中成功地區(qū)分其產(chǎn)品(例如,通過品牌名稱)。(a)&(b)分別是壟斷競爭和完全競爭的長期結(jié)果圖壟斷競爭從長遠(yuǎn)來看很難獲得利潤由于容易進(jìn)入行
14、業(yè),從長遠(yuǎn)來看,壟斷競爭對手可能有零經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤。 換句話說,P = ATC。4. Why do monopolistic competitors operate at excess capacity?Essentially, monopolistic competitors face downward sloping demand curves. Because the demand curve is downward sloping, it cannot be tangent to the lowest point on a U-shaped ATC curve.為什么壟斷競爭對手的產(chǎn)能過剩?
15、基本上,壟斷競爭者面臨向下傾斜的需求曲線。 因?yàn)樾枨笄€向下傾斜,所以它不能與U形ATC曲線上的最低點(diǎn)相切。(三)1. Oligopoly的三個(gè)條件:有很少的賣家和很多買家。公司生產(chǎn)和銷售均質(zhì)或差異化產(chǎn)品。進(jìn)入障礙重大。2. The oligopolist is a price searcher.It produces the quantity of output at which MR = MC3. Cartel卡特爾理論的關(guān)鍵行為假設(shè)是,在一個(gè)行業(yè)內(nèi),寡頭壟斷者似乎只有一個(gè)公司。他們形成一個(gè)卡特爾,以捕捉壟斷者將存在的好處。 卡特爾是一個(gè)企業(yè)組織,它減少產(chǎn)出并提高價(jià)格,以增加聯(lián)合利潤。4.
16、我們假設(shè)行業(yè)處于長期競爭均衡,產(chǎn)生Q1和充電P1。 沒有利潤。通過形成卡特爾將產(chǎn)量降低到QC,將價(jià)格提高到PC并帶來CPCAB的利潤。5. The Benefits of Cheating on the Cartel AgreementThe situation for a representative firm of a cartel: in long-run competitive equilibrium, it produces q1 and charges P1, earning zero economic profits. As a consequence of the cartel
17、 agreement, it reduces output to qC and charges PC.Its profits are the area CPCAB. If it cheats on the cartel agreement and others do not, the firm will increase output to qcC and reap profits of FPCDE. 代表卡特爾企業(yè)的情況:在長期競爭均衡中,它產(chǎn)生q1和收費(fèi)P1,賺取零經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤。作為卡特爾協(xié)議的結(jié)果,它將輸出減少到qC并收費(fèi)PC。它的利潤是CPCAB。如果它欺騙卡特爾協(xié)議,而其他人不會(huì),該公司
18、將增加產(chǎn)量到qCC和收獲FPCDE的利潤。但請注意,如果這家公司可以欺騙卡特爾協(xié)議,那么其他人也可以。 鑒于作弊獲得的貨幣利益,卡特爾很可能只存在很短時(shí)間6. 擴(kuò)充第五題:“Firms have an incentive to form a cartel, but once it is formed, they have an incentive to cheat.” What, specifically, is the incentive to form the cartel, and what is the incentive to cheat on the cartel?在這兩種情況下的
19、激勵(lì)是相同的:利潤。 公司有激勵(lì)形成卡特爾以增加利潤。 然而,在卡特爾形成之后,每個(gè)公司都有動(dòng)機(jī)打破卡特爾,進(jìn)一步增加利潤。 如果沒有卡特爾協(xié)議,那么公司的利潤為零。 但它可以通過欺騙卡特爾賺取更高的利潤。Part7 Factor markets; wages, unions and labour(一) 1. Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) 使用附加因子單位(即工人)產(chǎn)生的額外收入MRP = Total Revenue /Quantity (of the factor) MRP = Marginal Revenue x Marginal Physical Prod
20、uct. The MRP curve shows the various quantities of the factor the firm is willing to buy at different prices, which is what a demand curve shows. The MRP curve is the firms factor demand curve.3. Value Marginal Product (VMP)VMP=P x MPP MRP = MR x MPP and VMP = P x MPP. The MRP (factor demand) curve
21、and VMP curve are the same for a price taker, or perfectly competitive firm, because P = MR.The MRP (factor demand) curve for a firm that is a price searcher (monopolist, monopolistic competitor, oligopolist lies below the VMP curve because for these firms, P MR.4. Marginal Factor Cost (MFC)The addi
22、tional cost incurred by employing an additional factor unit使用附加因子單位產(chǎn)生的額外成本。MFC = TC/Quantity of the factor一個(gè)能夠以均衡價(jià)格購買所有要素的公司。 它面臨著一個(gè)水平(平坦,完全彈性)的因素供給曲線。因?yàn)橐跃鈨r(jià)格購買的,所以MFC的曲線與供給曲線是一樣的5.6. What is the distinguishing characteristic of a factor price taker?A factor price taker can buy all it wants of a fac
23、tor at the equilibrium price, and it will not cause factor price to rise. For example, if firm X is a factor price taker in the labor market, it can buy all the labor it wants at the equilibrium wage, and it will not cause this wage to rise. 因素價(jià)格接受者可以在均衡價(jià)格購買所有想要的因素,并且不會(huì)導(dǎo)致因素價(jià)格上漲。 例如,如果企業(yè)X是勞動(dòng)力市場中的要素價(jià)格
24、接受者,它可以在均衡工資下購買所有的勞動(dòng),并且不會(huì)導(dǎo)致這種工資上升。7.It is always the case that MRP = MR x MPP.For a perfectly competitive firm, where P = MR*, it follows that: MRP = P x MPP. If P changes, MRP will change. 8.(工資率)9. 產(chǎn)品需求彈性和勞動(dòng)力需求彈性之間的關(guān)系如下:產(chǎn)品的需求彈性越高,產(chǎn)生產(chǎn)品的勞動(dòng)力的需求彈性越高。產(chǎn)品的需求彈性越低,產(chǎn)生產(chǎn)品的勞動(dòng)力的需求彈性越低。10. 勞動(dòng)力成本與總成本之比與勞動(dòng)力需求彈性之間的
25、關(guān)系如下:勞動(dòng)力成本與總成本的比率越高,勞動(dòng)力需求的彈性越高(即,對于任何給定的工資增長,勞動(dòng)力的削減越大)。勞動(dòng)力成本與總成本的比率越低,勞動(dòng)力需求的彈性越低(即,對于任何給定工資增長,勞動(dòng)力的削減越少)。11. 勞動(dòng)力的替代品越多,需求的彈性越高。勞動(dòng)力的替代品越少,勞動(dòng)力需求的彈性越低。12.我們從勞動(dòng)力市場A的工資率30美元和勞動(dòng)力市場B的工資率10美元開始。不久,B的一些人遷移到A.這增加了一個(gè)市場(A)的供給,降低了工資率,減少了其他市場(B)的供給,推高了工資率。平衡是在兩個(gè)勞動(dòng)力市場支付相同的工資率時(shí)產(chǎn)生的。(二) Wages,union and labour1. Labor
26、Union Objectives2. Expain the Wage-Employment trade-offUnions can get higher wage rates, but some of the union members will lose their jobs in the process. 工會(huì)可以得到更高的工資率,但是一些工會(huì)成員將在這個(gè)過程中失去工作。3. 工會(huì)試圖通過影響以下一個(gè)或多個(gè)因素來實(shí)現(xiàn)他們的目標(biāo):勞動(dòng)力需求的彈性對勞動(dòng)力的需求勞動(dòng)力供給4. Collective Bargaining - The process whereby wage rates and
27、other issues are determined by union bargaining with management on behalf of all union members.Strike -The situation in which union employees refuse to work at a certain wage or under certain conditions.(集體談判 - 工資率和其他問題由管理層代表所有工會(huì)成員通過工會(huì)談判確定的過程。罷工 - 工會(huì)工人拒絕在某一工資或在某些條件下工作的情況。)5. 什么會(huì)降低對工會(huì)勞動(dòng)力的需求?對工會(huì)勞動(dòng)力的需求
28、因(a)工會(huì)勞動(dòng)產(chǎn)生的產(chǎn)品需求下降,(b)替代因素的價(jià)格下降,以及(c)工會(huì)勞動(dòng)的邊際實(shí)物產(chǎn)量的下降 。(MPP)6. Closed Shop - An organization in which an employee must belong to the union before he or she can be hired.Union Shop - An organization in which a worker is not required to be a member of the union to be hired but must become a member within
29、 a certain period of time after being employed.封閉店 - 在雇員被雇用之前,員工必須屬于工會(huì)的組織。聯(lián)盟商店 - 一個(gè)組織,其中工人不需要是被雇傭的工會(huì)的成員,但必須在被雇用后的一定時(shí)間內(nèi)成為成員。7.獨(dú)行主義者購買1個(gè)量的勞動(dòng)力,并支付W1的工資率,這小于MRP(勞動(dòng)力的支付低于其MRP)。如果工會(huì)通過集體談判成功地將工資率從W1提高到W2,那么公司也將雇傭更多的勞動(dòng)力(Q2而不是Q1)我們的結(jié)論是,在monopsony的情況下,更高的工資率(在一定范圍內(nèi))并不意味著更少的工作人員。8. Under what conditions will t
30、he minimum wage increase the number of people working?A minimum wage will increase the number of people working when (1) the firm hiring the labor is a monopsonist, and (2) the minimum wage is above the wage it is already paying and below the wage that corresponds to the point where MFC = MRP.在什么條件下
31、最低工資會(huì)增加工作人數(shù)?最低工資將增加工作人數(shù),當(dāng)(1)雇傭勞動(dòng)是一個(gè)獨(dú)行者,和(2)最低工資高于它已經(jīng)支付的工資,低于工資,對應(yīng)于MFC = MRP。9. How could a collectively bargained higher wage rate in the unionized sector of the economy lead to a lower wage rate in the non-unionized sector of the economy?If the higher wage rate reduces the number of people working
32、in the unionized sector and the people who lose their jobs in the unionized sector move to the nonunionized sector, then the supply of labor will increase in the nonunionized sector and wage rates will fall.在經(jīng)濟(jì)的非工會(huì)化部門,工會(huì)化經(jīng)濟(jì)部門的集體談判更高的工資率如何導(dǎo)致更低的工資率?如果較高的工資率減少了在工會(huì)化部門工作的人數(shù),失去工會(huì)的人在非工會(huì)部門中流動(dòng),那么非社會(huì)化部門的勞動(dòng)力供應(yīng)
33、將增加,工資率將下降。Part8 Distribution of income and Poverty; Interest,rent and profit(一) 1. Government can change the distribution of income through taxes and transfer payments. Government directly affects transfer payments and taxes.2. Individual income = Labor income + Asset income + Transfer payments - T
34、axes勞動(dòng)收入等于個(gè)人收到的工資率乘以工作時(shí)數(shù)。資產(chǎn)收入包括儲(chǔ)蓄回報(bào),資本投資回報(bào)和土地回報(bào)。轉(zhuǎn)移付款是對目前提供的貨物和服務(wù)不作回報(bào)的人的付款(例如,社會(huì)保障付款和現(xiàn)金福利援助是政府轉(zhuǎn)移付款)。最后,從勞動(dòng)收入,資產(chǎn)收入和轉(zhuǎn)移支付的總和,我們減去稅收,看看個(gè)人是什么留下(即個(gè)人收入)。政府可以通過改變稅收和轉(zhuǎn)移支付來改變個(gè)人收入。3. 洛倫茲曲線表示收入分布。基尼系數(shù)衡量收入分配中的不平等程度。基尼系數(shù)為0意味著完全收入平等; 基尼系數(shù)為1意味著完全收入不平等。4. 如果所有家庭都獲得相同的總收入百分比,洛倫茲曲線是直線且是完美收入平等的線。彎曲的洛倫茲曲線顯示收入分配不平等。洛倫茲曲線越
35、彎,收入分配越不平等。5. The Gini Coefficient衡量收入分配中的不平等程度。它等于完全收入平等線和實(shí)際洛倫茲曲線除以完全收入平等線下的整個(gè)三角形區(qū)域之間的面積。在圖中,這等于陰影部分除以三角形區(qū)域0AB。基尼系數(shù)為0意味著完全收入平等; 基尼系數(shù)為1意味著完全收入不平等?;嵯禂?shù)越大,收入不平等越大; 基尼系數(shù)越小,收入不平等越低。6. The public goodfree rider justification holds that many people are in favor of redistributing income from the rich to th
36、e poor and that the elimination of poverty is a public good: Most individuals in society would feel better if there were little or no poverty. Redistributing income from the rich to the poor is a free rider good (none can be excluded). Consequently, government is justified in taxing all persons to p
37、ay for the welfare assistance of some. 公共無乘坐者的理由認(rèn)為,許多人贊成將富國的收入重新分配給窮人,消除貧窮是一種公共利益:如果沒有或幾乎沒有貧困,社會(huì)中的大多數(shù)人會(huì)感覺更好。將富人的收入重新分配給窮人是一種免費(fèi)的乘客福利(沒有人可以排除)。因此,政府有理由對所有人征稅以支付一些人的福利援助。(二)1. 消費(fèi)貸款需求和投資貸款需求之和是可貸資金的總需求??少J資金的需求曲線是向下傾斜的:隨著利率上升,消費(fèi)者早期貨物可用性的成本上升,并減少他們的借款。此外,隨著利率上升,一些在較低利率下盈利的投資項(xiàng)目將不再有利可圖。因此,可貸資金的利率和需求量是負(fù)相關(guān)的。2. 名義利率 - 由可貸資金市場供求力量決定的利率。實(shí)際利率 - 根據(jù)預(yù)期通貨膨脹調(diào)整的名義利率,即名義利率減去預(yù)期通貨膨脹率。通貨膨脹(所有價(jià)格普遍上漲)降低一美元的價(jià)值(美元的購買力下降)4. Present value (PV) is computed by using the formula:PV=An(1+i)n其中An是未來某一年的實(shí)際收入 I是利率(以十進(jìn)制表示) n是未來的
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