?GSMA2025

BlockchaininAgriculture:GlobalLessonsandthe

KenyanExperience

June2025

GSMA

TheGSMAisaglobalorganisationunifyingthemobileecosystemtodiscover,

developanddeliverinnovationfoundationaltopositivebusinessenvironments

andsocietalchange.Ourvisionistounlockthefullpowerofconnectivityso

thatpeople,industry,andsocietythrive.Representingmobileoperatorsand

organisationsacrossthemobileecosystemandadjacentindustries,theGSMA

deliversforitsmembersacrossthreebroadpillars:ConnectivityforGood,IndustryServicesandSolutions,andOutreach.Thisactivityincludesadvancingpolicy,

tacklingtoday’sbiggestsocietalchallenges,underpinningthetechnologyand

interoperabilitythatmakemobilework,andprovidingtheworld’slargestplatformtoconvenethemobileecosystemattheMWCandM360seriesofevents.

Weinviteyoutofindoutmoreat

Authors

LaurenWhite,InsightsManager,GSMA

LeslieArathoon,Consultant,DigitalInfrastructureandServices

Contributors

DanieleTricarico,GSMAEugénieHumeau,GSMANighamShahid,GSMA

Acknowledgements

WewouldliketothankTertiaBaileyoftheForeign,CommonwealthandDevelopmentOfficeKenyaforhersupportandfeedback.

Wewouldalsoliketothankthemanyindividualsandorganisationsthat

contributedtothisresearch.Thisincludes,AgUnity,Antugrow,Bext360,Dimitra,Etherisc,EthicHub,Fairfood,Farmsent,GeoKrishi,HeiferLabs,hiveonline,Ibisa,IDBLACChain,MercyCorps,OneMillionAvocados,ProjectMocha,Shamba

Records,WhrrlandE-LivestockGlobal.

GSMACentral

InsightsUnit

TheCentralInsightsUnit(CIU)sitsatthecoreofGSMAMobileforDevelopment

(M4D)andproducesin-depthresearchontheroleandimpactofmobileand

digitaltechnologiesinadvancingsustainableandinclusivedevelopment.TheCIUengageswithpublicandprivatesectorpractitionerstogenerateuniqueinsights

andanalysisonemerginginnovationsintechnologyfordevelopment.Through

ourinsights,wesupportinternationaldonorstobuildexpertiseandcapacityas

theyseektoimplementdigitisationinitiativesinlow-andmiddle-incomecountriesthroughpartnershipswithinthedigitalecosystem.

Contactusbyemail:centralinsights@

UKInternationalDevelopment

partnership

progressprosperity

ThismaterialhasbeenfundedbyUKInternationalDevelopmentfromtheUK

governmentandissupportedbytheGSMAanditsmembers.TheviewsexpresseddonotnecessarilyreflecttheUKgovernment’sofficialpolicies.

Contents

Acronymsandabbreviations

Definitions

Listoffigures

Listoftables

Executivesummary

1Introduction

2BlockchainforthedigitalisationofagriculturalvaluechainsinKenya

3Blockchainusecasesandapplications

Digitalidentity

Agriculturalinputverification

Credit,loansand

crowdlending

Insurance

Traceability

Carboncredits

4Keyfindingsandrecommendations

Introduction

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Acronymsandabbreviations

3G

4G

5G

ACREAI

B2B

B2C

CBK

DLT

ESG

EUDRFAO

GDP

IBM

Thirdgeneration(mobilenetwork)Fourthgeneration(mobilenetwork)

Fifthgeneration(mobilenetwork)

AgricultureandClimateRiskEnterpriseArtificialintelligence

Business-to-business

Business-to-consumer

CentralBankofKenya

Distributedledgertechnology

Environmental,socialandgovernance

EuropeanUnionDeforestationRegulationFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

Grossdomesticproduct

InternationalBusinessMachines

ID

ILO

IMF

IVR

IoT

KIAMIS

KSHKYCLMICMFI

NDCNFTNGOOMA

Identitydocument

InternationalLabourOrganizationInternationalMonetaryFund

InteractivevoiceresponseInternetofThings

KenyaIntegratedAgriculturalManagementSystem

Kenyanshilling

Knowyourcustomer

Low-andmiddle-incomecountryMicrofinanceinstitution

NationallydeterminedcontributionNon-fungibletoken

Non-governmentalorganisationOneMillionAvocados

PIN

PKI

QR

RISA

RLMUA

SaaS

SADC

UN

USAID

USDUSSDVCMWFP

PersonalidentificationnumberPublickeyinfrastructure

Quickresponse(code)

RwandaInformationSocietyAuthorityRwandaLandManagementandUse

Authority

SoftwareasaService

SouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity

UnitedNations

UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment

UnitedStatesdollar

UnstructuredsupplementaryservicedataVoluntarycarbonmarket

WorldFoodProgramme

Introduction

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Definitions

Agribusiness

Aformalbuyer,traderorexporterofagriculturalproduce,orinputsupplier.(Source:GSMA)

Agriculturalvaluechains

Theactorsandactivitiesthatbringbasicagriculturalproducefromthefieldtofinalconsumption,withvalueaddedtotheproduce

ateachstage.Agriculturalvaluechainscaninvolveprocessing,

packaging,storage,transportanddistribution.Valuechainscanbeformalorinformaldependingonthestrengthoftherelationship

betweenfarmersandbuyers.(Source:GSMA)

Agritech

Acompanyprovidingtech-basedsolutionstoincreaseefficiency,transparencyandprofitabilityinagriculture.(Source:GSMA)

Assettokenisation

Theprocessofcreatingadigitalrepresentationofarealthing.(Source:McKinsey&Company)

Blockchain

ADLT:adatabaseofrecordsortransactionsstoredonseparate,connecteddevicesinapublicorprivatecomputernetwork.

(Source:McKinsey&Company)

Commercialfarmers

Farmerswhosellmostoftheirproduceandinvestintheirfarmsasabusiness.(Source:60Decibels)

Crowdlending

Crowdlendingisaformofcrowdfundingfinancingwheremultipleinvestorspooltheirindividualcontributionstosupportaproject.Contributorsreceiveaportionofprofitsinreturnfortheir

investment.

Dipping

Aveterinarypracticewherelivestockareimmersedinachemicallytreatedwaterbathtotreatorpreventdisease.

Distributedledgertechnology(DLT)

Adigitalsystemforrecordingthetransactionofassets.Thereisnocentraldatastore,butratherdataisstoredinmultipleplacessimultaneously.(Source:TechTarget)

Non-fungibletoken(NFT)

Blockchain-basedtokensthatrepresentauniqueassetlikeatree,afarmorananimal.NFTsactasirrevocabledigitalcertificatesofownershipandauthenticityforagivenasset,whetherdigitalor

physical.(Source:AWS)

Parametricinsurance

Insurancepoliciesthatreleasepaymentswhenatriggereventhappens.Mostpoliciesarebasedonpredeterminedindices,orthresholds,thatmustbemet.Inmostcases,paymentis

automaticallydisbursedtopolicyholdersoncetheindicesestablishedinthepolicyareexceeded.

Pre-commercialfarmers

Farmerswhosellasubstantialshareoftheirproduceandshowsomemarketorientationthroughinvestmentsandinteractions.(Source:60Decibels)

Smallholderfarmer

AfarmerinaLMICwhoproducescropsorlivestockontwo-hectareplotsoflandorless.

Smartcontract

Acomputercodeembeddedinablockchainnetworkthatis

programmedtoautonomouslyandautomaticallyexecuteactionswhenapre-determinedsetofcriteriaismet.(Source:McKinsey&Company)

Subsistencefarmers

Farmerswhoconsumemostoftheircropsandhavelowmarketorientationintheirinvestments.(Source:60Decibels)

TheInternetof

Things(IoT)

Describesthecoordinationofnumerousmachines,devicesandappliancesconnectedtotheInternetthroughmultiplenetworks.(Source:GSMA)

VirtualassetReferstoanydigitalrepresentationofvaluethatcanbedigitally

traded,transferredorusedforpayment.

Introduction

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Listoffigures

Figure1Blockchaininaction

Figure2PercentageofconnectionsbynetworkinKenya(2024)

Figure3Shareofpopulationaged15+

usingdigitalfinancialservices,

selectedAfricancountries(2022)

Figure4Totalfundingbyregionandby

verticalinAfrica,2024

Figure5AgricultureasashareofGDPandemployment,selected

Africancountries

Figure6DistributionofKenya’sexportsbyvalue,2024

Figure7SmallholderfarmersinKenya,innumbers

Figure8Mostcommoncropsgrownin

Kenya(%offarminghouseholds)

Figure9Mostcommonlivestockraisedin

Kenya(%offarminghouseholds)

Figure10ShareoffarmersaccessingcreditinKenyaduringthe2023–2024Masika(heaviestrainseason),byfarmertype

Figure11ShareofagriculturalhouseholdsinKenyaexperiencingdifferenttypesofclimateshocksinthe

last24monthsandshareof

thosehouseholdsthathave

recoveredaftertheinitialshock

Figure12Snapshotofdigitalinsuranceuseamongsmallholderfarmersin

Kenya

Figure13Corechallengesexperiencedbyfarmers

Figure14Benefitsofblockchainatvarious

stagesofthevaluechain

Figure15Keyusecasesforblockchaininagriculture

Figure16Howblockchaincanhelpbuild

self-sovereigndigitalidentitiesFigure17Agros’blockchain-powered

digitalidentity(IDENTI)

Figure18DESIS2.0userjourney

Figure19Totalsupplyofsmallholderfarmerlending(annual

disbursements,USDbillion)

Figure20myCoop.onlinefinancial

reputationsystem

Figure21StakeholdersintheEthicHubbusinessmodel

Figure22BenefitsreportedbyfarmersreceivingEthicHub/Heifer

Internationalloans

Figure23GrossloansandNPLsin

agricultureportfolioofKenyancommercialbanks

Figure24Non-performingloans

Figure25Blockchaininparametricinsurance

Figure26UserjourneyforResilientGrowth

parametricinsurance

Figure27ResilientGrowthpaymentthresholds

Figure28CostofclimateeventsforKenya’seconomy

Figure29Bext360traceabilityplatformpricing

Figure30Verstegentraceabilitysolution

Figure31HowE-LivestockGlobaltracks

livestockinZimbabwe

Figure32E-livestockGlobaldataecosystem

Figure33Financingthroughvoluntarycarbonmarkets

Figure34Mappingofcarboncredits

awardedbyEconomyofLove,Egypt

Figure35BusinessmodelforcarboncreditprogrammeinUganda

Figure36EtherisccarbonmarketinitiativeinUganda,conceptoverview

Figure37Projectedincomeincreasesfor

participatingsmallholderfarmersinUganda

Figure38VoluntaryCarbonMarket(VCM)InvestmentAttractivenessIndex,2024

Figure39Currentandplannedblockchain-enabledservicesinKenya

Figure40Koltivadigitalagriculture

servicesportfolio

Figure41Impactofe-levyonmobile

moneytransactionsinGhana,2021–2023

Figure42EtheriscpartnershipsinAfrica,2024

Figure43Etheriscplatform

Listoftables

Table1DigitalIDbusinessmodels

Table2Theoutcomesandimpacts

offraudulentseedsintheagriculturesector

Table3Creditscoring,loansand

crowdlendingbusinessmodels

Table4Businessmodelsidentifiedin

blockchain-enabledinsurancesolutions

Table5PlayersactiveinKenya’s

agriculturalinsurancemarket

Table6Driversofdemand-side

traceabilitysolutions

Table7Divisionofusecasesbytype

Introduction

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Executivesummary

Introduction

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Blockchainisadigitaltechnology,

referredtoasadistributedledger

technology,forrecordingandsharing

informationinasecure,transparent,andtamper-proofmanner.Itcanbeusedto

Thisreportpresentssixkeyusecases

ofblockchaintechnologyinagricultural

valuechains,basedonanextensivedeskreviewandinterviewswithblockchain

solutionprovidersinlow-andmiddle-

incomecountries(LMICs).Italsoassessestherelevanceandapplicabilityofthese

usecasestotheagriculturesectorin

Kenya,whichoffersastrongenabling

environmentfordigitalinnovationin

agriculture,andalreadyhassomeexistingblockchaininitiativesinagricultureand

finance,indicatingareadinesstoscaleimpactfulblockchain-basedsolutionstoimprovethelivelihoodsofsmallholderfarmersandstrengthenagribusinesses.

Definingblockchaintechnology

recordtransactions,managedata,and

automateprocesseswithoutneedinga

centralauthority.Thesecorefeaturesof

blockchain,immutabilityandtransparencyofdataandtransactionrecords,have

ledtoitsincreasingadoptioninthe

digitalisationofagriculturalvaluechainstoaddresssomeofthemostpressing

challengesfacingsmallholderfarmersaswellastheagribusinessesthatworkwiththem,suchaslimitedaccesstofinance

toprocurequalityinputsandcushion

againstclimateshocks,lackofprice

transparencyininformalandinefficient

markets,weaklandownershiprecords

andlowtrustbetweenstakeholdersinthevaluechain.

Introduction

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Keyusecases

ofblockchaininagriculture

Digitalidentity

Lackofidentitydocumentationandaformal

financialhistoryisasignificantchallengefor

manysmallholderfarmersacrosstheglobe,

leavingthemstrugglingtoaccesscritical

productsandservicessuchascredit,insuranceandsubsidies,evenastheyfacehigherrisks

fromincreasingclimatevariability,andcontinuetofarmwithmorepoorerqualityinputsastheyaremoreaffordable,resultinginloweryields.

Blockchaintechnologyoffersaviablesolutionforcreatingandmaintainingdigitalidentity

records.Blockchainenablesmultipletrustedpartnerstorecordtheirinteractionswithan

individualonashared,tamper-proofplatform,strengtheningtrustinthatindividual’sdigitalidentityovertime.ThisdigitalidentitycouldhelpfarmersmoreeasilymeettheKnowYourCustomer(KYC)requirementsoffinancial

institutions,andfacilitateaccesstoessentialfinancialservicessuchascreditandinsurance.

verification

Agricultureinput

Blockchaincanbeusedtoverifythe

authenticityandqualityofessentialagriculturalinputs,suchasseedsorfertiliser.Itcanfacilitatetrackingoftheseinputsfromsuppliersto

farmers,reducingthedistributionoffraudulentandcounterfeitproducts.

Credit,loansandcrowdlending

Becausedataonablockchaincannotbe

altered,blockchainhelpsreducetheriskof

fraudanddisputesoverpayments,makingit

well-suitedtolendingandcreditprovision.Theuseofblockchain-enabledsmartcontractscanautomateloandisbursements,therebyreducingboththetimerequiredtoaccessloansandthecostofservicingthem.

Blockchainhasalsoenabledthedevelopmentofinnovativecrowdlendingmodels,suchas

assettokenisation.Inthismodel,aphysical

agriculturalasset–suchasaplotoflandor

livestock–isdigitallyrepresentedasatokenontheblockchain.Eachtokenreflectsownershiporashareinthevalueofthatassetandcanbesecurelybought,sold,ortradedinrealtime.

Thisallowsmultipleinvestorstoco-investinasingleasset,enablingsmallholderfarmerstoraisecapitalmoreeasily.

Insurance

Parametricinsurancepoliciesaresetupto

releasepaymentstopolicyholderswhena

predefinedtriggerevent,suchasafloodor

drought,occurs.Blockchaincanenhance

theefficiencyofthisprocessbyautomation

throughsmartcontracts,reducingthe

administrativeburdenofmanagingpayouts,

andimprovingthereliabilityandintegrityofthedatausedtotriggerpayouts.

Traceability

Blockchainiswell-suitedtosupportthe

traceabilityrequirementsof“farm-to-fork”

initiativesthataimtoprovidetransparencyacrossthevaluechain,fromthegrowthof

cropstothesaleofthefinalproduct,astheimmutabilityofrecordsontheblockchain

strengthenstrustinthetrackinginformation.

Blockchaincanalsobeusedtotrackthe

lifecycleofcattle,includingvaccinations,

dipping,saleandslaughter.Recordsofthese

eventsontheblockchaincanverifycompliancewithregulations,suchasforconsumer

assuranceorexportcertifications.

Carboncredits

Thevoluntarycarbonmarket(VCM)enablescompaniesseekingtooffsettheircarbon

emissionstoinvestininitiativesthatsequestercarbon,forwhichtheycanthenreceive

carbonoffsetcredits.VCMoffersfarmerstheopportunitytogenerateadditionalincomebyparticipatingincarbonoffsettingprojects,byadoptingmoresustainablefarmingpractices.

However,VCMprojectscanoftenlack

transparencyduetofragmenteddata

reporting,limitedthird-partyverification,

anduncleararrangementsonhowtoshare

benefits.Blockchaincanhelpaddressthese

challengesbymaintainingimmutablerecordsofagreementsandtransactions.Smartcontracts,whicharecontractscodedontoablockchain

thatautomaticallyenforcethetermsofan

agreement,canbeparticularlyusefulfor

executingandenforcingtermsbetweenVCMprojectdevelopersandimplementers.

Introduction

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Blockchainfor

agricultureintheKenyancontext

AgricultureiscentraltoKenya’seconomyandtheprimarysourceoflivelihoodsformuchoftheruralpopulation.Smallholderfarmersareresponsibleforapproximately75%ofthecountry’stotalagriculturaloutput.However,farmersinKenyafacearangeofchallengesthat

undermineproductivity:limitedaccesstocreditmakesitchallengingtomeetproductioncosts,lackofaccesstocreditandinsurance

increasesexposuretorisk,whileclimatevariabilityaffectscrop

yields.Additionally,theuseofpoor-qualityinputs,lackofsufficientandreliabledatatoinformdecisionmaking,andlackofverified

identitydocuments,whichcanfacilitateaccesstocriticalfinancial

productsandmarkets,furtherimpacttheproductivityandefficiencyofthesector.

KenyahasemergedasanearlyleaderamongLMICsinblockchain-enabledagriculturalservices,particularlyinAfrica.Thisisduetothecountry’sconduciveenvironmentforinnovation,includingrelativelyadvanceddigitalinfrastructurecomparedtomanyotherLMICs,highmobilephonepenetration,andapolicyenvironmentsupportiveofdigitalinnovation,aswellashighuptakeofmobilemoneyservices.ThereisaclearopportunityforKenyatoleverageblockchainintheagriculturesectorfurthertoaddressthechallengesthatKenyan

smallholderfarmersandagribusinessesface.

Introduction

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Challengesin

scalingblockchainsolutions

Despitethepromisingusecasesof

blockchainindigitalisingagricultural

valuechainstoaddresspainpointsfacedbysmallholderandcommercialfarmers,blockchainsolutionsproviderscontinue

tofacechallengesinscalingblockchain

solutions.Findingsfromthisresearch

indicatethatakeychallengeissecuringfunding.Manyinvestorsremainhesitanttobackblockchain-basedsolutions,

partlyduetothetechnology’sassociationwithcryptocurrencies,whichhavebeenvolatileandsubjecttonegativemedia

coverageandregulatoryuncertainty.Thisperceptionoftencausesstakeholderstooverlookthepotentialofblockchainin

sectorssuchasagricultureandmakesitmoredifficultforblockchain-basedsolutionproviderstoraiseinvestment.

Tomaketheirbusinessmodelmore

viable,blockchainsolutionproviderstendtosolveseveralpainpointsforfarmers

simultaneously–forexample,improvingaccesstocreditthroughverifieddigitalidentitieswhileincreasingmarketaccess

forfarmersviamoretransparentsupply

chains.Byaddressingmultiplepainpoints,blockchainsolutionproviderscandeliverhighervaluetofarmerswhilecreating

sustainabledemandfortheirplatforms.

Blockchainsolutionprovidersalsoface

multipletechnology-specificchallenges.Thisincludespoorqualityorinaccuratedatabeingenteredontotheblockchain,resultinginsub-optimaloutcomes.The

costofmaintainingdataandtransactionrecordsonblockchainisalsohigherthanusingconventionalcloud-baseddata

storagesolutions,sodatastorageonto

theblockchainmustbeconsidered,andonlydataessentialtotheusecasestoredon-chain.

Finally,alackofon/offrampssolutions

i.e.mechanismsthatenablefarmersto

convertblockchain-baseddigitaltokensintocashormobilemoneyandviceversa,limitseverydayuseabilityandreduces

theincentivetoadoptblockchain-basedfinancialproducts.

Introduction

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Recommendations

forscalingadoptionofblockchainin

agricultureinKenya

FullyrealisingtheopportunitiesblockchainoffersfortheagricultureinKenyawillrequirecoordinationandcommitmentfromvariousstakeholdersinthesector,

includingthegovernment,NGOsanddonors,startupsandagribusinesses.Keyrecommendationsfordifferentstakeholdergroupsinclude:

Agribusinesses,donoranddevelopmentpartners,andNGOs

?Ensurethatblockchainsolutionsareadaptedtothecontextofruralsmallholderfarmersbypartnering

Startups

?Prioritisesolutionsthatimprove

existingprocesses,suchas

integrationwithexistingagricultureinputverificationandsupplychain

Government

?Developandimplementpoliciesand

regulationsthatprovidelegalclarity

forblockchainapplications,particularlyinareassuchasdigitalidentity,

smartcontracts,anddigitalassets,toincreaseconfidenceamonginnovators,investors,andusers.

?Investintrainingandoutreach

programstobuildawarenessand

technicalcapacityamongfarmers,

cooperatives,agribusinesses,andlocalgovernmentagenciesonthebenefitsanduseofblockchaintechnologies.

?Offergrantsoropportunitiesfor

public-privatepartnershipstosupportblockchainsolutionprovidersbuildingandimplementingblock-chain

basedsolutionsinagriculture.This

includespilotingandscalingprojectsthatdemonstrateclearimpactfor

smallholderfarmers.

traceabilityprocesses,before

introducingthosethatfundamentallydisruptthem,suchasblockchain-

enabledalternativefinancingmodelslikecrowdlendingandparametric

insurance.

?Recognisethateachusecasepresentsdistinctconsiderationsforhow

blockchaincanbemosteffectively

deployed,andtailorimplementationaccordingly.Forexample,for

traceabilityanddata-verificationusecases,itisimportanttoimplement

dataverificationprocessestoensurethevalidityofdatainput.AdditionaltechnologiessuchasAIandIoTcouldalsobeusedtoautomatedatainput.ForthedigitalIDusecase,aligning

blockchain-basedIDsystemswithexistingnationalIDsystemscanencouragetrustanduserbuy-in.

?Designsolutionsthatcancatertomobiledataconstraints,andpoorconnectivityenvironments.

withcommunity-basedactorsand

organisationstoidentifyprospectiveusers,createawarenessandsupportadoptionbyfarmers.

?Buildtrustthroughtheuseoflocal

championswhocanadvocateforandexplainblockchainapplicationsin

simple,relevanttermstosmallholderfarmers.

?Deliverdigitalliteracyandcapacity-

buildinginitiativesamongfarmers,

cooperatives,andagribusinessstafftoincreaseawarenessandconfidenceinblockchain-basedservices.

ExecutiveIntroduction:BlockchainfordigitalisingBlockchainusecasesKeyfindingsand

summaryWhatisblockchain?agriculturevaluechainsinKenyaandtheirapplicationsrecommendations

Introduction

ExecutiveIntroduction:BlockchainfordigitalisingBlockchainusecasesKeyfindingsand

summaryWhatisblockchain?agriculturevaluechainsinKenyaandtheirapplicationsrecommendations

Whatisblockchain?

Blockchainisanemergingdigitaltechnologythatcanbeusedtoshare

informationsecurelybetweenparticipantsonanetwork.ItisaDLT:adatabaseofrecordsortransactionsstoredonseparate,connecteddevicesinapublicor

privatecomputernetwork.1Allparticipantsinthenetworkhavethepowertoaddarecordtothedatabaseandhavesimultaneousaccesstotherecordsinreal

time.Thekeycharacteristicsofblockchainareitssecurity,permanenceofrecorduploadsandimmutability(dataremainsauthenticandunmodified).2Thislendsitselfwelltotheexchangeofdigitalassetsandthetransferofphysicalassets

beingtrackedbythetechnology.

Thefirstmodernblockchainwaslaunchedin2009,associatedwiththe

cryptocurrencybitcoin.Until2015,blockchainwasusedtosupportspecific

cryptocurrencies.ThedevelopmentofEthereum3–ablockchainplatformthatcouldrundecentralisedapplicationsbecauseitheldexecutablesourcecodeinadditiontodata–enabledblockchaintobecomeatechnologywithamuchwiderrangeofapplications.Whilesecurefinancialtransactionsarestilloneofthemainapplications,blockchainhasevolvedtosupportimmutablerecord

keepingandsecureexchangeinmanyotherdomains,includingagriculture.

Therearenowmorethan1,000bl