1、 第一章緒論1/ what is linguistics? 什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)？linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. it studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ the scope of linguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究范疇the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通語(yǔ)言學(xué))the study of sou

2、nds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （語(yǔ)音學(xué)）the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系學(xué)）the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形態(tài)學(xué)）the study of how morphemes and words

3、are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法學(xué)）the study of meaning in language is called semantics. （語(yǔ)義學(xué)）the study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （語(yǔ)用學(xué)）the study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）the study of language with reference

4、to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)）the study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)） but in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching

5、 and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人類語(yǔ)言學(xué)） neurological linguistics, （神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)） mathematical linguistics, （數(shù)字語(yǔ)言學(xué)）and computational linguistics. （計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）3/ some important distinctions in linguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究中的幾對(duì)基本

6、概念prescriptive and descriptive 規(guī)定與描寫if a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.modern linguistics differs fro

7、m traditional grammar. traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.synchronic and diachronic 共時(shí)和歷時(shí)the description of a language at some point in time is a s

8、ynchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. in modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.speech and writing 口頭語(yǔ)與書面語(yǔ)speech and writing are the two major media of communication. modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as

9、primary, but not the written form. reasons are: 1. speech precedes writing; 2. there are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. in terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the writt

10、en.langue and parole 語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ)the swiss linguist f. de saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. saussure made t

11、he distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. he believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.competence and performance 語(yǔ)言能力

12、和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用proposed by american linguist n. chomsky in the late 1950s.he defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. he believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the

13、language rules. 4/ what is language? 語(yǔ)言的定義language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. hall, like sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. chomskys definition is quite different, it focus on t

14、he purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ design features 語(yǔ)言的甄別性特征design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

15、 american linguist charles hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.arbitrariness 語(yǔ)言的隨意性arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. it is not entirely arbitrary. example: different sounds are used to refer to the same obj

16、ect in different languages.productivity 語(yǔ)言的創(chuàng)造性language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. this is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.dualit

17、y 語(yǔ)言的二重性the duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.displacement 語(yǔ)言的移位性displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined

18、 matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.cultural transmission 語(yǔ)言的文化傳遞性while human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and

19、 learned anew. this indicates that language is culturally transmitted. it is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. chapter 2 phonology 音系學(xué)1. the phonic medium of language語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介speech and writing are the two media used by natural language

20、s as vehicles for communication. of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. speech is prior to writing. the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.for linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than th

21、at of writing. the limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介) . the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （語(yǔ)音）.2what is phonetics?什么是語(yǔ)音學(xué)？phonetics is defined as the stu

22、dy of the phonic medium of language；it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.there are three branches of phonetics. they are:articulatory phonetics （發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）, it studies the speech sounds from the speakers point of view. it studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to

23、articulate the sounds.auditory phonetics （聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué)），it studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. it studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.acoustic phonetics（聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. it studies the physical means by which speech sound

24、s are transmitted through the air from one person to another.3. organs of speech發(fā)音器官the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throatthe oral cavity 口腔 the mouththe nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nosethe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. it may also be modified in the larynx (喉

25、) before it reaches any of the cavities.lying across the glottis (聲門) are the vocal cords (聲帶). vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. the speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound. the tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.4. ort

26、hographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptions語(yǔ)音的書寫形式寬式和窄式音標(biāo)ipa-international phonetic alphabet 國(guó)際音標(biāo)there are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. one is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符號(hào)) only, called broad transcription (寬式音標(biāo)). the other is the transcription w

27、ith letter-symbols together with the diacritics (變音符號(hào)), called narrow transcription (窄式音標(biāo)).實(shí)例：對(duì)pit/spit中p音的比較：pit中的p是送氣音，在窄式音標(biāo)中標(biāo)為上標(biāo)，寫作：phit spit中的p是不送氣音，在寬式音標(biāo)中不作標(biāo)示，寫作：spit對(duì)leaf/feel/build/health中l(wèi)音的比較：leaf中l(wèi) 在元音前，叫清晰音，在寬式音標(biāo)中不作標(biāo)示，寫作：li:ffeel中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在單詞結(jié)尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音標(biāo)中加變音符號(hào)build中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在另一個(gè)輔音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音標(biāo)中也加變音符

28、號(hào)health中l(wèi)出現(xiàn)在齒音前，受其影響叫齒音l，在窄式音標(biāo)中加變音符號(hào)ii5. classification of english speech sounds英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音的分類a) classification of english consonants英語(yǔ)輔音的分類按發(fā)音方式分stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: p b t d k g fricative 擦音：f v s z w t s v h affricate 塞擦音：tfdvliquid流音：l rnasal鼻音：m n n glide滑音：w j按發(fā)音部位分bilabial雙唇音：p b m w labiodental唇齒

29、音：f vdental齒音：w talveolar齒齦音：t d s z n l rpalatal硬腭音：vtfdvivelar軟腭音：k g nglottal聲門音：hb) classification of english vowels英語(yǔ)元音的分類按舌頭在口中的位置分：front vowel前元音：i: i e a a central vowel中元音：: q back vowel后元音：u: u r: r a:按口形的大小分：close vowel閉元音：i: i u: usemi-close vowel半閉元音：e :open vowel開元音：a asemi-open vowel半

30、開元音： r: q r a:按唇形是否為圓分unrounded vowel不圓唇元音：i: i e a a : q a:rounded vowel圓唇元音：u: u r: r按語(yǔ)音的長(zhǎng)短分long vowel長(zhǎng)元音i: :a: u: r:short vowel短元音i e a a q u r在元音中還有一些(diphthong)雙元音，包括：ei ai u a u ri i e u6. phonology 音系學(xué)phonology and phonetics音系學(xué)和語(yǔ)音學(xué)both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.phon

31、etics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisti

32、c communication. thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.example:單詞leap和peel中的l音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同對(duì)意義的表達(dá)并無(wú)關(guān)聯(lián)。所以，如果從語(yǔ)音學(xué)角度來(lái)說(shuō)，這是兩個(gè)不同的語(yǔ)音，而從音系學(xué)角度來(lái)說(shuō)，這是同一基本實(shí)體的兩個(gè)變體。音系學(xué)家對(duì)不引起意義區(qū)別的語(yǔ)音間的細(xì)微區(qū)別并不關(guān)注，但語(yǔ)音學(xué)家卻要對(duì)所有的語(yǔ)音進(jìn)行描述，不論它們之間的差別對(duì)表達(dá)意義有沒有關(guān)系。7. phone, phoneme, and allophone語(yǔ)音（音素）、音位、

33、音位變體phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. a phone is a phonetic unit or segment. it does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. the basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a uni

34、t that is of distinctive value. but it is an abstract unit. a phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.按照慣例，音位被置于兩斜線之間，如/p/ /t/，而語(yǔ)音被置于方括號(hào)內(nèi)，如p t.the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that p

35、honeme.8. phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位對(duì)立、互補(bǔ)分布、最小對(duì)立對(duì)phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. they might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme. the

36、 former is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。the latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. they only occur in different environments.如top中的送氣的p和stop中不送氣的p。a basic way to d

37、etermine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. if it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. an easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.when two different forms are identical in every way except for one

38、 sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.如pen和ben。9. some rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則a) sequential rules 系列規(guī)則the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.b) assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則

39、the assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.c) deletion rules 省略規(guī)則the rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.10. suprasegmental features- stress, tone, inton

40、ation超切分特征：重音、聲調(diào)和語(yǔ)調(diào)distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.a) stress 重音b

41、) tone 聲調(diào)c) intonation 語(yǔ)調(diào)when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.當(dāng)音高、重音和音長(zhǎng)依附于一個(gè)句子而不是單個(gè)單詞時(shí)，這些音素合起來(lái)叫做語(yǔ)調(diào)。english has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, a

42、nd the rise-fall tone. the most frequently used are the first three.英語(yǔ)中有四種基本語(yǔ)調(diào)：降調(diào)、升調(diào)、降升調(diào)、升降調(diào)。最常用的是前三種。 chapter 3 morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)definition定義morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. morphology is divided into two sub-branc

43、hes: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. the former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.形態(tài)學(xué)可分為兩個(gè)分支科學(xué)：屈折形態(tài)學(xué)和詞匯或派生形態(tài)學(xué)。前者研究詞的屈折變化，后者研究詞的構(gòu)成。2. morpheme 語(yǔ)素the smallest meaningful unit of language語(yǔ)言最小的意義單位。the meaning morphemes convey may be of

44、 two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.語(yǔ)素表達(dá)的意義有兩種：詞匯意義和語(yǔ)法意義。3. types of morphemes 語(yǔ)素的分類a) free morphemes 自由語(yǔ)素free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.b) bound morphemes 黏著語(yǔ)素 bo

45、und morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.4. types of bound morphemes 黏著語(yǔ)素的分類bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 詞根和詞綴。a root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand

46、 by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折詞綴和派生詞綴inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such

47、 as number, tense, degree, and case. the english inflectional affixes include:屈折詞綴或屈折語(yǔ)素表明各種不同的語(yǔ)法關(guān)系或語(yǔ)法范疇，如：數(shù)、時(shí)態(tài)、形容詞和副詞的級(jí)和格。現(xiàn)在英語(yǔ)中的屈折詞綴包括：-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名詞復(fù)數(shù)-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示現(xiàn)在時(shí)的第三人稱單數(shù)-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示過(guò)去

48、時(shí)-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示進(jìn)行時(shí)-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容詞和副詞比較級(jí)-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容詞和副詞最高級(jí)-s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名詞的所有格derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. this

49、is a very common way to create new words in english. such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. a stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derive

50、d form itself.派生詞綴加在一個(gè)原有的單詞上以構(gòu)成一個(gè)新詞。這是英語(yǔ)中的一個(gè)很常見的構(gòu)成新詞的方式，這樣的方式叫派生法，用派生法構(gòu)成的新詞叫派生詞。能夠加上一個(gè)派生詞綴的原有語(yǔ)素叫做詞干。詞干可以是一個(gè)黏著詞根、自由語(yǔ)素或者本身就是一個(gè)派生詞。實(shí)例：tolerate 詞根toler- 詞綴-atequickly 自由語(yǔ)素quick 詞綴-lycarelessness 自由語(yǔ)素care 詞綴-less 形成的派生詞careless 詞綴-nessaffixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前綴和后綴prefixe

51、s modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.5. morphological r

52、ules 形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.6. types of compound words 復(fù)合詞的類型noun + noun 名詞名詞 如：handbook, sunshineadjective +noun 形容詞名詞 如：highway, sweetheartadjective +noun +ed 形容詞名詞ed 如：white-haired, green=eyedverb +noun

53、動(dòng)詞名詞 如：pickpocket, drivewayadverb +noun 副詞名詞 如：downtown, upgradenoun +verb 名詞動(dòng)詞 如：toothpick, snowfallverb +adverb 動(dòng)詞副詞 如：follow-up, kick-offnoun +adjective 名詞形容詞 如：world-famous, life-long-ing form +noun -ing形式名詞 如：dining-room, reading-glassesother forms 其它形式 如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing,

54、have-nots, thank-you note7. features of compounds1) orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.如armchair, follow-up, thunder bird2) syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of spee

55、ch of the second element.如icy-cold是形容詞，head-strong也是形容詞，greenhouse是名詞。而例外的情況有：follow-up, crackdown, kickoff都是名詞而不是副詞，而toothpick, snowfall, facelift都是名詞而不是動(dòng)詞。3) semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.如hotdog, greenho

56、use等。4) phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.如running dog 重音在running上，表示“走狗”這一-ing形式名詞的復(fù)合詞。如重音在dog上，則表示running用來(lái)修飾dog，意為“還在跑的狗”。 chapter 4 syntax 句法學(xué)1 what is syntax?syntax studies the sentence structure of language. the term syntax came originally from greek. it literally meant a